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أخواني في الله أحضرت لكم كتاب 3D Scanning for Advanced Manufacturing, Design, and Construction Gary C. Confalone, John Smits, Thomas Kinnare East Coast Metrology Topsfield, MA, USA
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Contents Preface xi How to Use This Book xiii Chapter 1 History of Metrology 1 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 The History of Metrology 2 1.3 The International System of Units (SI) 3 1.4 The History of the Metric System 3 1.5 The History of the British Imperial System (IS) 4 1.6 Evolution of Metrology 13 1.7 Milestones of Metrology 22 Chapter 2 3D Scanning Basics 25 2.1 Basics of Laser Light Technology 25 2.2 Laser Safety 25 2.3 So What Exactly Is a Laser? 28 2.4 Laser Types 29 2.5 LIDAR vs Laser-Radar 32 2.6 Laser-Radar 32 2.7 Basics of 3D Scanning 35 2.8 How It Works 35 2.9 Limitations 35 2.10 Accuracy 36 2.11 Modern Metrology 37 Chapter 3 Scanning Equipment 39 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Triangulating Laser Scanners 39 3.3 Data Acquisition Variables 41 Chapter 4 Data Acquisition and Processing Software 65 4.1 Introduction 65 4.2 Data Acquisition Software 66 4.3 Inspection Software 71 4.4 Data Export Options 72 4.5 Point Clouds 73viii Contents 4.6 Processing and Registration 78 4.7 Survey Controls 80 4.8 Polygonal Mesh 81 4.9 Using Processed Datasets 82 Chapter 5 Post-Processing 85 5.1 Introduction 85 5.2 Coordinate Systems 86 5.3 Scaling 93 5.4 Mapping Techniques 93 5.5 CAD to Part Comparison 97 5.6 Root Mean Square and Standard Deviation 98 5.7 The Method of Least Squares 99 5.8 What Is Uncertainty? 102 5.9 Contributing Factors to Uncertainty 105 5.10 Typical Post-processing Workflow 108 Chapter 6 Reverse Engineering for Industrial and Consumer Applications 111 6.1 Introduction 111 6.2 Industrial Applications 112 6.3 Case Studies 118 6.4 Racing Yacht Boat Build 118 6.5 Reverse Engineering: Cessna Caravan Performance Upgrade 121 6.6 Replication of a Classic Propeller Design 123 6.7 Roller Coaster Inspection 126 6.8 Argomaiden Sculpture 129 Chapter 7 Reverse Engineering for Architecture, Engineering, and Construction 133 7.1 Introduction 133 7.2 Modeling for Architects and Engineers 134 7.3 Case Studies 142 7.4 Research Facility Coordinate Control System 142 7.5 Architectural Ornament Replication 146 7.6 Fonthill Castle, Bronx, NY 149 7.7 Infrastructure Preservation 153 7.8 Generating Station Turbine Replacement 158 Chapter 8 Future Directions 161 8.1 Software Development 162 8.2 Technology 162 8.3 Extended Reality 163Contents ix 8.4 UAV and AV 165 8.5 Industry Trends 165 8.6 Summary 168 Chapter 9 Resources 169 9.1 Units of Measure 175 9.2 Coordinate Metrology Society (CMS) Certification 181 9.3 Certification Committee 181 9.4 CMS Certification Levels 183 9.5 CMS Level-Two Certification 185 9.6 National Metrology Laboratories and Institutes 187 Metrology Glossary 191 Index 201For many years additive manufacturing and 3D scanning were considered a futuristic science seen only in Hollywood movies and television shows. This technology has now become a reality which has found its way into mainstream society. Today, with relative ease, folks in this field can explain their vocation in a manner that others can recognize and appreciate. The career opportunities in this profession are wide and varying as technology expands the scope of these revolutionary applications through multiple industries. 3D Scanning for Advanced Manufacturing, Design, and Construction is a result of many years spent in the field and in the lab throughout the formative development of this science. The authors combine to bring over 100 years of experience as they worked in varying facets of this field, and the manner in which it was applied to their area of expertise. Aerospace, manufacturing, industrial research and development, architecture, engineering, and construction all use this technology to advance the improvement of their respective trades. Each of these business segments and many more are explored with real-world examples. To that we credit our coworkers, clients, and vendors for their support and advice throughout the creation of this text. Without their experience and diverse knowledge, the culmination of work in the following pages would not exist. Index Note: page numbers in italics refer to figures; those in bold to tables A accordion fringe interferometry (AFI), 50 accuracy, 36–37, 105, 106–107, 116, 191 acre (unit of measurement), 9–10, 9 additive manufacturing see 3D printing AEC see architectural/engineering/ construction industry aerial imaging airborne LIDAR systems, 31 photogrammetry, 62 unmanned aerial vehicles, 165, 165 AFI see accordion fringe interferometry aircraft Cessna Caravan performance upgrade, 121–123, 122, 123 coordinate system, 90, 90, 92 alignment cloud to cloud, 79 control points, 80 definition, 191 photographs, 60, 62–63 post-processing techniques, 93–97 registration of multiple scans, 78–80 use of targets, 51, 78–79 see also mapping; registration ambient temperature stabilization/soaking before scanning, 107 see also coefficient of thermal expansion; thermal/temperature compensation angle of incidence, 41–42, 76, 76, 77 AR see Augmented Reality architectural/engineering/construction (AEC) industry case studies, 142–160 cloud-to-cloud fitting, 96 future use of scanners, 166 reverse engineering, 111, 133–160 architectural ornament replication case study, 146–149 Argomaiden sculpture, 129–131, 130, 131 arm scanners, 15–16, 15, 48–49, 48 articulated arm Coordinate Measuring Machines, 48–49, 48 artwork, reverse engineering, 129–131, 130, 131 as-built condition as-built models versus design intent models, 115 dataset in digital twin creation, 142 definition, 191 documentation variation from original design, 112–113 turbines in generating station case study, 158–160 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange), 72, 191–192 Atlantic Trawlers case study, 123–126, 124–126 Augmented Reality (AR), 163–164, 164, 166 Autodesk software, 141, 156 automated 3D scanning devices, 166–167, 167 autonomous vehicles (AVs), 28–29, 165 axisymmetric objects, cylindrical coordinate system, 88 azimuth (yaw), rotational motion, 92 B ball-bars, 192 basic dimensions, 192 basic principles, 25–37 3D scanning, 35–37 lasers, 28–31 LIDAR and laser-radar systems, 32–34 Bear Swamp Generating Station, turbine replacement case study, 158–160, 159202 Index BIM see Building Information Modeling BL see Buttock Line blue light scanning, structured light scanning, 50 boats propeller design replication project, 123–126, 124–126 racing yacht build project, 118–121, 119–121 boresighting, 191, 192 bridge-type Coordinate Measuring Machines, 44, 45, 45, 191 Brookfield Renewable Power, generating station turbine replacement case study, 158–160, 159 Building Information Modeling (BIM), 134, 140, 141 buildings clash detection in redesign, 139–140, 140 documentation, 136–137, 136 internal level alignment, 150, 152 ongoing sensor data for digital twins, 142 point cloud data, 73, 135, 137, 138, 152–153 reverse engineering applications, 134–135 use of drones and robots to scan, 166 Buttock (butt) Line (BL), aircraft coordinate system, 90, 90 C CAD (computer-aided design) architecture and construction, 134, 136, 138, 140, 141 CAD-to-part comparison for aircraft performance upgrade, 123, 123 definition, 192 model mapping, 97–98 calibration, 46, 52, 94, 181, 187, 192, 195 camera sensitivity, versus angle from normal, 43 cantilever-type Coordinate Measuring Machines, 46 Cartesian coordinate system, 87–88, 87, 90–91 case studies architectural ornament replication case study, 146–149 Argomaiden sculpture, 129–131, 130, 131 boat propeller design replication project, 123–126, 124–126 Cessna Caravan aircraft performance upgrade, 121–123, 122, 123 Claiborne Pell Bridge, 153–156, 155–156, 157 Fonthill Castle, 149–152, 149, 150, 152, 153 racing yacht boat build, 118–121, 119–121 roller coaster inspection, 126–129, 126, 127 tokamak fusion machine, 142–145, 143–145 cell phones see smartphones cells see structured meshes chain (unit of measurement), 7, 8, 176 checkerboard targets, reference marks for scans, 78–79, 79, 151 Claiborne Pell Bridge, infrastructure preservation case study, 153–156, 155–156, 157 clash detection, building redesign, 139–140, 140 cleaning up point cloud data, post-processing, 108 cloud to cloud fitting, mapping, 93–94, 95–96 CMMs see Coordinate Measuring Machines CMSC see Coordinate Metrology Society certification CNC (computer numerical control) machines, 88, 117, 117, 121, 126, 130–131 coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), 106–107, 107, 113, 114, 193 College/University 3D scanning study programs, 172–175 collimation, 28, 30 Comma Separated Values (CSV) file format, 80, 80, 193 compass, history, 16, 16 compensation data acquisition software, 70 definition, 193 thermal, 92, 106, 113, 199 tilt compensators, 59 computer-connected (tethered) handheld scanners, 52–53, 53 computer numerical control (CNC) machines, 88, 117, 117, 121, 126, 130–131 computers future technology, 162–163 storage capacity and processing speeds, 85 see also smartphones; tablet computers conferences, 171–172 contact measuring probes (touch probes), 43–45, 44, 47, 48, 197 control points (common points/benchmarks) alignment, 80 coordinate system requirement, 143, 143, 144, 192–193 importing by data acquisition software, 71 mapping, 94–95, 95 Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMMs), 43–48, 193 advantages, 46–47Index 203 arm mounted laser scanners, 20 history, 14–16 laser scanners, 47–48 level-one Coordinate Metrology Society certification, 184, 184 limitations, 47 setup, 43–45 use in quality assurance, 43, 45, 48 Coordinate Metrology Society certification (CMSC), 181–187 committee, 181–183 level-one, 183–185, 183, 184 level-two, 185–187, 186, 187 coordinate systems, 85, 86–92 aircraft, 90, 90, 92 Cartesian coordinate system and variations, 87–88, 87, 90–91 cylindrical coordinate system, 88–89, 88 relative to object, 143 spherical coordinate system, 89–90, 89 corners, effects on beam, 42 correction, 193 cross-sectioning, using processed datasets, 83 CRS see coordinate reference system CSV (Comma Separated Values) file format, 80, 80, 193 CTE see coefficient of thermal expansion cubit (unit of measurement), 7 curvature-based sampling, post-processing, 110 cylindrical coordinate system, 88–89, 88 D data acquisition speeds and number of points, 85 variables, 41 data acquisition and processing software, 65–84 data collection software, 65, 66–71 features, 66–71 instrument compatibility, 66 point cloud or structured meshes, 67–68 view control, 67 data inspection software, 65 data processing, skill and expertise in building documentation, 137 data processing and registration, 78–80 datums/datum features, 80, 86, 90, 143, 191, 193 degrees of freedom (DOF), rotational motion, 19, 91–92, 92, 101 density of scanned points, 73–74, 75–76, 75, 155, 198 design intent models idealization, 115, 116 versus as-built models, 115 deviations from the design intent, checking in manufacture, 119–121 diffuse reflecting surfaces, data acquisition characteristics, 41 digital twins, 61, 134, 141–142, 166 dimensional inspection, 193 diopter instrument, history, 17, 17 display formats, data acquisition software, 70 distortion from stress or load, changing shape of scanning subject, 107 documentation buildings, 136–137, 136 of scanned data, 65 DOF see degrees of freedom drift instrumental drift, 195 scan drift in multiple scanning, 79–80 drones see unmanned aerial vehicles Duke University, architectural ornament replication case study, 146–149 dumb models/dumb solids, 115, 197 DW Fritz ZeroTouch, automated 3D scanning device, 167–168, 167 dye lasers see liquid lasers E E57 file format, 72 electromagnetic radiation/spectrum, 28, 28 electronic measurement machines, history, 14–16 English units conversions, 176–181 see also imperial system entertainment industry, future use of scanners, 165 environmental effects contribution to uncertainty, 105–107, 106 variation from original design, 113 errors in mapping, 94–95 Evaluation of Measurement Data – Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty (GUM), 169 extended reality (XR), future technological development, 163–164 external corners, effects on beam, 42 F FAI see first article inspection Faro Technologies, 21204 Index Claiborne Pell Bridge case study, 154 Fonthill Castle case study, 150 generating station turbine replacement case study, 158, 159, 160 laser scanners, 21, 127, 128, 150, 154 laser trackers, 144, 158, 159, 160 SCENE software, 156, 157 tokamak fusion machine case study, 144 fathom (unit of measurement), 8–9 Ferranti coordinate measuring machine, 14, 14, 15 fiber lasers, 32 file formats, 72, 117–118 see also CSV; STL, XYZ first article inspection (FAI), 194 floors, topographic mapping, 138–139, 139 Fonthill Castle, building documentation case study, 149–152, 149, 150, 152, 153 foot (unit of measurement), 6, 6, 176–177 forensic study, surface characteristics of buildings, 137–139 4D models, 142 free-form shapes, 194, 196 reverse engineering case studies, 118–131, 147–149 furlong (unit of measurement), 8, 176 future directions, 161–168 G gage repeatability and reproducibility (gage R&R), 194 gantry-type Coordinate Measuring Machines, 46, 46, 194 gas lasers, 29–30, 30 GD&T see geometric dimensioning and tolerancing General Conference on Weights and Measures (GCWM), 3 geocentric terrestrial (global) coordinate system, surveying coordinates, 91 Geomagic, 66, 131 geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T), 2, 100, 194 geometric fit methods, 99–100 glossary, 191–199 graphics window size, data acquisition software, 69 ground-based close-range photogrammetry, 62 ground-based scanners architectural ornament replication, 146, 146, 147 see also terrestrial laser scanners GUM see Evaluation of Measurement Data – Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty H handheld scanners, 49–55 architectural ornament replication, 146–147, 147 choosing the correct device, 49–50 structured light scanning, 50–51 time of flight, 50–51 types, 51–55 hand (unit of measurement), 5–6 hardware manufacturers, 170–171 history measuring instruments, 13–22 units of measurement, 2–13 Hodgdon Yachts case study, 118–121, 119–121 horizontal arm Coordinate Measuring Machines, 46, 47, 47 I idealization changing the accuracy of the model, 116 design intent models, 117 IGES file format, 72 IGS file format, 72 imperial system (IS) history, 2, 3–13 unit conversions, 176–181 importing control points and geometric features, data acquisition software, 71 IMU see Inertial Measurement Unit inch (unit of measurement), 5, 176, 177 industrial applications automated 3D scanning devices, 166–167, 167 future directions, 166 in-process metrology to compare parts to design, 168 reverse engineering, 111–132 industrial revolution, 13–16 industry trends, 165–168 Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU), SLAM systems, 59 influence quantities, 195 infrastructure preservation, Claiborne Pell Bridge case study, 153–157 inspection software, comparing measurements with ideal of prescribed shape, 66, 71–72Index 205 instrumental drift, 79–80, 195 instrumental uncertainty, 195 instrument compatibility, data collection software, 66 instrument location, data acquisition software, 69 interface simplicity, data collection software, 67 interferometers, 19, 50 internal corners, effects on beam, 42 International System of Units (SI), 3, 4, 10–11 International Vocabulary of Metrology (VIM), 169, 199 IS see imperial system L LAS see Leica Absolute Scanner laser diodes see semiconductor lasers laser light technology, basic principles, 25–34 Laser-Radar, 32–33, 33, 34 lasers classes, 26–27 definition, 28 safety, 25–27, 26 types, 29–30 laser scanners capabilities by type, 22 data acquisition variables, 41 handheld devices, 49–55 history, 20–22 retrofitted onto Coordinate Measuring Machines, 47 see also scanning equipment laser scanning, definition, 195 laser source, future technology, 163 laser trackers architectural ornament replication, 146, 147 definition, 195 generating station turbine replacement case study, 158, 159, 160 history, 19–20 metrology-level handheld scanners, 54–55 racing yacht boat build project, 119, 120, 121 tokamak fusion machine case study, 143–144, 143, 144 layer cut depth, topographical mapping, 138 least squares adjustment, data fitting, 99, 195 Leica Absolute Scanner (LAS), 144, 145, 146 Leica Geosystems, 21 laser scanners, 21, 21 laser trackers, 19, 144, 144, 145, 146 Nova M60 “multi-station”, 19 Scan Station, 154 LiDAR pucks, SLAM laser systems, 59–60, 61 LIDAR systems, 33–34 applications, 34 characteristics, 58 Claiborne Pell Bridge case study, 156 comparison with focused lasers, 26 definition, 32 equipment types, 56–59 extended reality, 164 Fonthill Castle case study, 149 future technology, 163 history, 56 Laser-Radar comparison, 32, 33 limitations to be overcome, 163 limiting parameters, 29 RADAR comparison, 29, 32, 33 scan controls, 58–59 time of flight versus phase-based scanners, 56–58, 57 unmanned aerial vehicles/autonomous vehicles, 165 Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, laser acronym, 28 Light Image Detection and Ranging, LiDAR acronym, 56 light scattering, diffuse reflecting surfaces, 41 limitations of laser scanning, 35–36 line of sight problems, 42 liquid (dye) lasers, 30 local (topocentric) coordinate system, surveying coordinates, 91 long distance measurement, 35, 35 long-range scanning, mapping, 95–96 lost information, need for reverse engineering, 112 M machined parts, automated 3D scanning devices, 166–167, 167 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), used to create point clouds for 3D printing, 166, 167 manual registering of clouds, 96 manufacturing industry 3D scanning in mechanized inspection, 168 future use of scanners, 166 mapping uncertainty, 102–107 see also Simultaneous Localization and Mapping mapping techniques, post-processing, 85, 93–97, 94, 95, 96 mapping terrain, LIDAR use in drones, 165, 165206 Index material properties, measurement accuracy effects, 106–107, 107 matte surfaces, diffuse reflection, 41 maximum permissible error (MPE), 93–94, 195–196 measurand, definition, 196 measurement accuracy, effects of material properties, 106–107, 107 measurement result, 196 measurements functionality of data acquisition software, 68, 70 using processed datasets, 83, 83 measurement traceability, 196 measurement uncertainty, 196 measuring instruments history, 14–22 measuring systems, 196 measuring systems, 2, 3–13, 10–11, 12, 196 mechanized inspection, 3D scanning in manufacturing process, 168 meshes data collection software, 67–68 definition, 196 file formats, 117–118 using polygonal mesh files, 81–82 metric system history, 1, 2–3, 2, 11 unit conversions, 176–181 USA, 11–13 metrology definition, 2, 196 history, 1–24 milestones, 22–23 metrology-level handheld scanners, 54–55, 55 micrometer (instrument), 14 micrometer (micron), 194 mile (unit of measurement), 10, 176, 177 military equipment manufacture, history, 13–14 mil (one-thousandth of an inch), 5 mirror like surfaces, data acquisition characteristics, 41 mobile mapping see Simultaneous Localization and Mapping mobile phones see smartphones modeling architects and engineers, 134 polygonal mesh, 81–82, 81, 117 software, 65 see also documentation; 4D models; meshes; reverse engineering model updating, digital twins, 142 MPE see maximum permissible error MRI see magnetic resonance imaging multi-station instruments, 19 N National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST), 4 National Metrology Laboratories and Institutes, 187–190 Nd:YAG (neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet) lasers, 31 NIST see National Institute for Standards and Technology noise affecting accuracy level, 116 background noise from other light sources, 36 definitions, 82, 196 discrimination threshold, 194 from surface characteristics, 51 reduction post-processing, 108–109 processing stage, 78, 82, 151 scanners, 58 nominal dimensions, 197 noncontact measurement, 20–21, 22, 47, 130–131, 166–167, 168, 197 nonparametric models (dumb models), 197 NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B-Spline) curves and surfaces, 125, 196, 197 O Object files (.obj), 118 ongoing sensor data, building use information for digital twins, 142 organizations, 169–170 outliers, 78, 108, 196 overlapping scans, mapping, 96 P pace (unit of measurement), 10 parametric model, 197 PCMM see portable coordinate measuring machine phase-based long-range laser scanner see LIDAR phase-based scanners, versus time of flight scanners, 56–58, 57 photographs imagery used with scans, 58 photogrammetry, 39, 40, 50, 61–63, 93, 112, 162, 197 SLAM 3D mapping, 59, 60Index 207 photon avalanche, gas lasers, 29 piping and ductwork in buildings, 140, 141 pitch, rotational motion, 92 plastic materials, logistical issues when using a contact probe CMM, 47 PLY (Polygon File Format/Stanford Triangle Format) files, 118 point clouds, 72–78, 73 data collection software, 67–68, 70 definition, 197 density, 73–74, 75 editing functions, 68 multiple scans, 76–78, 77 resolution level, 74 scanner distance and angle of incidence, 75–76, 75, 76, 76, 77 scan spacing and overlap, 76–77 surface characteristics of object, 75 surface fluctuations, 116 time available, 77–78 point identification, data acquisition software, 71 polygonal mesh data files, 81–82, 81, 117–118 polygonal modeling, 197 Polygon file format (PLY), 118 Polyworks, 66, 81 portable coordinate measuring machine (PCMM), Laser-Radar comparison, 34 portable devices, see also smartphones; tablet computers portable scanners articulated arm Coordinate Measuring Machines, 48–49 level-one Coordinate Metrology Society certification, 184, 184 post-processing, 85–110 coordinate systems, 85, 86–92 future automation, 168 mapping, 85, 93–97, 94, 95, 96 sampling point cloud, 108–110, 108, 109 scaling, 85, 93 software functions needed, 85–97 typical workflow, 108–110 uncertainty determination, 85 post-processing type functions in data acquisition software, 68–69 power supplies, future scanning technology, 162 precision cost of scanners, 55 decreased in SLAM technology, 61 definition, 197–198 Laser–Radar, 32 level required for reverse engineering, 116 probes definition, 197 see also contact measuring probes pulsed laser beams, measuring distance, 31 Q quality assurance, Coordinate Measuring Machines, 43, 45, 48 quick measurements for field checking, data acquisition software, 70 R RADAR, LIDAR comparison, 29, 32 random point cloud sampling, 108, 109 range of scanners, 58 real surfaces, reflective characteristics, 41–43 reference books, 169 reference dimension, 198 reference model, 198 reference systems, spatial/coordinate, 198 registration, post-processing mapping techniques, 94–95 repeatability history of measurement, 14 and repeatability condition, 198 see also gage repeatability and reproducibility replicating ornamental features on buildings, 137 reproducibility and reproducibility condition, 198 research facility, tokamak fusion machine case study, 142–145, 143–145 resolution of display devices, 198 of measuring instruments, 58, 74, 198 resources, 169–190 reverse engineering AEC industry, 111, 133–160 applications, 134–135 architectural ornament replication case study, 146–149 building documentation, 136–137 case studies, 118–131, 142–160 Cessna Caravan aircraft performance upgrade case study, 121–123, 122, 123 creating artwork, 129–131, 130, 131 definition, 198 design theft, 115 industrial/consumer applications, 111–132 infrastructure preservation, Claiborne Pell Bridge case study, 153–157208 Index modeling of scanned data, 65 needs in industry, 112 reflecting design intent or as-built condition, 115 scanning parts in place, 107 surface and forensic structural analysis of buildings, 137–139 use of coordinate systems, 86 see also documentation; modeling Rhode Island Turnpike and Bridge Authority (RITBA), Claiborne Pell Bridge case study, 153 roads, scanning road surface, 153–157, 155–156, 157 robots, scanning routes within buildings, 166 rod (unit of measurement), 7–8, 8, 176 roll, rotational motion, 92 roller coaster inspection, 126–129, 128, 129 root mean square, 98 rotational motion, roll/pitch/yaw, 92, 92 rusticated masonry, building documentation, 138, 149 S SA see Spatial Analyzer safety issues, lasers, 25–27 sampling point cloud, post-processing, 108–110, 108, 109 Sanayei, Masoud, 126–127 scaling post-processing, 85, 93 thermal compensation, 92, 113 scan alignment and drift, 79–80 scan bounding, data acquisition software, 70 scan density, 73–74, 75–76, 75, 155, 198 scanner distance/proximity to object, effects, 42, 75–76 scanning equipment, 39–64 capability of unit types, 22 categories, 39, 43–63 future development, 162–163 history, 20–22 principles, 39–43 scan quality, building documentation purposes, 135, 136–137, 136 scan registration, 78–80, 151–152 scan speed, 198 scan to mesh systems, additive manufacturing/3D printing, 117 sculpture architectural ornament replication case study, 146–149 reverse engineering, 129–131, 130, 131, 146–149 self-contained handheld scanners, 51–52, 52 semiconductor lasers (laser diodes), 30–31, 31, 32 semi-tethered handheld scanners, 53–54, 54 sensing technology LIDAR use in unmanned aerial vehicles/ autonomous vehicles, 165 solid-state systems, 163 settings adjustment, data acquisition software, 69 SI see International System of Units Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM), 59–61, 60, 163 SLA/SL see stereolithography smartphones augmented reality, 164 photogrammetry, 63, 162 self-contained handheld scanners, 53 SMR see spherically mounted retroreflector soaking, stabilization to ambient temperature before scanning, 107 software, 65–84 Claiborne Pell Bridge case study, 156 data collection, 65, 66–71 data export options, 72 data processing and registration, 78–80 future development, 162 handheld scanners, 49, 50, 51, 53 history, 22 inspection software, 71–72 list, 171 overcoming processing limitations, 85 photogrammetry, 63 polygonal mesh, 81–82, 81 post-processing, 85–110 processed dataset use, 82–84, 83 SLAM scanning systems, 60, 61 survey controls, 80, 80 theodolites, 18 types, 65 solid-state lasers, 31–32 Spatial Analyzer (SA), 66, 94, 95, 102, 108, 109, 144–145 spatial reference system (SRS), 198 specular surfaces, data acquisition characteristics, 41 spherical coordinate system, 89–90, 89 spherically mounted retroreflector (SMR), 54, 143, 195 sports industry, future use of scanners, 166 SRS see spatial reference system STA see Station Line StandardAero case study, 121–123, 122, 123Index 209 standard deviation, 98–99, 199 standardization of weights and measures, 1, 2, 22–23 Standard Tessellation Language/Standard Triangle Language, 199 see also STL file format Stanford Triangle Format files, 118 Station Line (STA), aircraft coordinate system, 90, 90 STEP file format, 72 stereolithography (SLA/SL), 199 STL (STereo-Lithography/Standard Triangle Language/Standard Tessellation Language) file format structured light scanning accordion fringe interferometry versus blue or white light scanning, 50 equipment types, 39, 40, 50–51 future technology, 163 handheld scanners, 50, 51 principles, 50 structured meshes file formats, 117–118 see also STL file format surface characteristics, affecting laser reflection, 36–37, 41, 41, 75 surface characteristics of buildings, forensic study, 137–139 surge/sway/heave, translational motion naval vessels, 92 survey controls, 80, 80 surveying, history, 16–19 surveying coordinate system, 91, 91 suspension bridge, Claiborne Pell Bridge case study, 153–157, 155–156, 157 system accuracy, contribution to uncertainty, 105 systematic errors, correction, 193 T tablet computers, 50, 53, 54, 147, 159 targets alignment, 51, 78–79 reference marks for scans, 79, 79, 149, 150, 151 registration, 77–78, 78 technology, future development, 162–163 tenth (one-tenth of one-thousandth of an inch), 5 terrestrial laser scanners applications, 56 LIDAR, 56–59 time of flight versus phase-based scanners, 56–58 tethered (computer-connected) handheld scanners, 52–53, 53 theodolites, history, 17–19 thermal/temperature compensation, 92, 106, 113, 199 see also coefficient of thermal expansion third-party software, 66 thou (one-thousandth of an inch), 5 3D best-fitting, mapping, 100–101 3D Manufacturing Format files (.3MF), 118 3D printing architectural ornament replication case study, 148–149, 148 joints and bone structures, 166, 167 scan to mesh systems, 117 time-of-flight scanners handheld scanners, 50–51 long distance measurements, 36, 57 principles, 31, 35–36, 57 replacing interferometers, 19 versus phase-based scanners, 56–58, 57 tokamak fusion machine, case study, 142–145, 143–145 tooling balls, 101, 199 topocentric (local) coordinate system, surveying coordinates, 91 topographic mapping, walls, 137–138, 138 total station (theodolites) (TS/TST) instrument, 18–19, 18 total station (TS) instrument, 37, 80, 91, 95, 155 touch probes see contact measuring probes tradeshows, 171–172 transit instruments, 17–18 translational motion naval vessels, surge/ sway/heave, 92 transportation industry, autonomous vehicles using scanners, 165–166, 165 triangulating laser scanners, 39–40, 40, 43 tripod-mounted LIDAR terrestrial laser scanners, 56, 56 TS see total station turbine replacement case study, Bear Swamp Generating Station, 158–160, 159 U UAVs see unmanned aerial vehicles uncertainty contributing factors, 105–107 environmental effects, 105–107 estimations, 102–105, 103 instrumental uncertainty, 195, 196 measurement uncertainty, 196210 Index procedural and environmental uncertainty, 196 reduction using multiple scanning paths, 145 system accuracy effects, 105 Unified Spatial Metrology Network (USMN), 102, 144–145 uniform grid sampling, post-processing, 109–110, 109 United States Geological Survey (USGS) datums, 59, 80, 85 units of measurement angles, 179 area, 177–178 conversions, 176–181 England, 4 history, 2–13 International System, 2, 10–11 length, 3–10, 4, 6, 8, 9, 176–177 mass, 178–179 metric system, 2–4, 4 possible confusion when using STL file format, 117–118 pressure, 180–181 systems, 3, 11–13, 175–176 temperature, 179–180 USA, 11–13 volume, 178 world use, 12 unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs/drones), LIDAR use, 165, 165, 166 USGS see United States Geological Survey USMN see Unified Spatial Metrology Network V validation, 199 variation from original design, need for reverse engineering, 112–113 verification, 70, 199 vernier caliper, history, 13, 14 view control, data collection software, 67 VIM see International Vocabulary of Metrology Virtual Reality (VR), future technological development, 163–164 visual Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (vSLAM), 59 VR see Virtual Reality vSLAM see visual Simultaneous Localization and Mapping W walls, topographic mapping, 137–138, 138 Water Line (WL), aircraft coordinate system, 90, 90 watertight solid surface models, 131, 131, 147, 148 wavelength distortion due to environmental effects, 106, 106 wearable SLAM devices, 60, 60, 61 websites, 175 weighted fitting, mapping, 101–102 weights and measures, standardization, 1, 2, 22–23 white light scanners, structured light scanning, 50 WL see Water Line X XR see extended reality XYZ file format, 72, 83 Y yard (unit of measurement), 7, 176 yaw (azimuth) rotational motion, 92 Z ZeroTouch, automated 3D scanning device, 167–168, 167
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