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 |  موضوع: كتاب Heat Exchangers Volume II - Third Edition الإثنين 01 يوليو 2024, 2:26 am | |
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Heat Exchangers Volume II - Third Edition
Mechanical Design, Materials Selection, Nondestructive Testing, and Manufacturing Methods
Kuppan Thulukkanam
و المحتوى كما يلي :
Contents
Preface .xi
Acknowledgments xv
About the Author xvii
Chapter 1 Mechanical Design of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers .1
1.1 Pressure Vessels .1
1.2 Mechanical Design of Pressure Vessels and Heat Exchangers 5
1.3 Stress Analysis .15
1.4 Stress Categories 16
1.5 Design Methods and Design Criteria .19
1.6 Key Terms in Pressure Vessel and Heat Exchanger Design .24
1.7 Pressure Vessels Design .25
1.8 Mechanical Design of STHE .30
1.9 Fundamentals of Tubesheet Design .35
1.10 Tubesheet Design Procedure: Historical Background .38
1.11 Tubesheet Design as per ASME Code Section VIII Div. 1 46
1.12 Tubesheet Design as per TEMA Standards (Appendix A-Non-mandatory
Section) 49
1.13 Flanged Tubesheets: TEMA Design Procedure A.1.3.3 58
1.14 Rectangular Tubesheet Design .58
1.15 Curved Tubesheets .60
1.16 Conventional Double Tubesheet Design 60
1.17 Cylindrical Shell, End Closures, and Formed Heads Under Internal
Pressure 61
1.18 Bolted Flange Joint (BFJ) 70
1.19 Taper-Lok Heat Exchanger Closure 100
1.20 Expansion Joints 102
1.21 Openings and Nozzles 119
1.22 Nozzles .120
1.23 Supports .124
1.24 Lifting Devices and Attachments .128
Chapter 2 Material Selection and Fabrication .135
2.1 Material Selection Principles .135
2.2 Equipment Design Features .151
2.3 Raw Material Forms Used in the Construction of Heat Exchangers .152
2.4 Materials for Heat Exchanger and Pressure Vessel Construction 155
2.5 Plate Steels .156
2.6 Pipes and Tubes 160
2.7 Plate Steels Weldability Problems .163
2.8 Hot Cracking 172
2.9 Laboratory Tests to Determine Susceptibility to Cracking 176
2.10 Service-Oriented Cracking .178
2.11 Welding-Related Failures .178viii Contents
viii
2.12 Selection of Cast Iron .178
2.13 Selection of Carbon Steels .179
2.14 Low-Alloy Steels .183
2.15 Quenched and Tempered Steels .185
2.16 Chromium-Molybdenum Steels .187
2.17 Stainless Steels .192
2.18 Ferritic Stainless Steels 220
2.19 Duplex Stainless Steels 225
2.20 Super Duplex Stainless Steel .234
2.21 Superaustenitic Stainless Steels .235
2.22 Aluminum Alloys: Metallurgy .237
2.23 Copper 249
2.24 Nickel and Nickel-Base Alloys Metallurgy and Properties .260
2.25 Titanium: Properties and Metallurgy .269
2.26 Zirconium .281
2.27 Tantalum .284
2.28 Materials for High Temperature Heat Exchangers 285
2.29 Graphite 285
2.30 Glass .290
2.31 Teflon .291
2.32 Ceramics 292
2.33 Composite 294
2.34 Alloys for Subzero/Cryogenic Temperatures .294
2.35 Cladding .303
2.36 Post-Weld Heat Treatment of Welded Joints in Steel Pressure
Vessels and Heat Exchangers .320
Chapter 3 Quality Control, Inspection, and Nondestructive Testing 337
3.1 Quality Control and Quality Assurance .337
3.2 Quality Control System (QC) 339
3.3 Quality Manual 341
3.4 Elements of Quality Costs .343
3.5 Quality Review and Evaluation Procedures .344
3.6 Documentation .344
3.7 Quality Management 345
3.8 Quality Tools and Quality Improvements Methods .347
3.9 Inspection .362
3.10 Welding Design 364
3.11 Nondestructive Testing Methods 374
3.12 Visual Examination 385
3.13 Liquid Penetrant Inspection .391
3.14 Magnetic Particle Inspection 396
3.15 Magnetic Rubber Technique (MRT) 403
3.16 Radiographic Testing .404
3.17 Ultrasonic Testing 418
3.18 Advanced UT Methods 439
3.19 Acoustic Emission Testing .444
3.20 Eddy Current Testing .449
3.21 Tube Inspection with Magnetic Flux Leakage .459
3.22 Remote Field Eddy Current Testing .460Contents ix
ix
3.23 Tube Inspection with Near Field Testing .461
3.24 Pulsed Eddy Current (PEC) .462
3.25 Heat Exchanger Tube Inspection Methods 464
3.26 Tubesheet Diagram for Windows .465
3.27 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) .465
3.28 Acoustic Pulse Reflectometry (APR) .466
3.29 Barkhausen Noise Analysis 467
3.30 Automated Corrosion Mapping .468
3.31 Drones Use in Nondestructive Testing .468
3.32 Dynamic NDT Methods .468
3.33 Electromagnetic Sorting of Ferrous Metals .469
3.34 Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers 469
3.35 Optical Holography NDT 470
3.36 Magnetic Flux Leakage 470
3.37 Microwave Nondestructive Testing 472
3.38 Smart Pig 472
3.39 Replication Metallography .472
3.40 Shearography .473
3.41 Thermography 474
3.42 PAIRT .474
3.43 Leak Testing .474
3.44 In-Service Examination of Heat Exchangers for Detection of Leaks 482
Chapter 4 Fabrication, Brazing, and Soldering of Heat Exchangers 494
4.1 Introduction 494
4.2 Fabrication of the Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger 494
4.3 Vendor’s Responsibilities .497
4.4 Details of Manufacturing Drawing 497
4.5 Details of Manufacture of STHE .501
4.6 Plate Bending .508
4.7 Welding of Shells, Checking the Dimensions, and Subjecting
Pieces to Radiography 509
4.8 Tubesheet and Baffle Drilling 514
4.9 Tube Bundle Assembly 519
4.10 Tubesheet to Shell Welding 526
4.11 Tube-to-Tubesheet Joint Fabrication 527
4.12 Tube-to-Tubesheet Joint Welding 553
4.13 Assembly of Channels/End Closures with Shell Assembly .577
4.14 Preparation of Heat Exchangers for Shipment .581
4.15 Making Up Certificates 582
4.16 Foundation Loading Diagrams/Drawings 582
4.17 Heads and Closures 583
4.18 Heads and Closures Forming Methods 585
4.19 Brazing .593
4.20 Elements of Brazing .595
4.21 Quality Control and Quality Assurance System for Brazing
of Heat Exchangers 605
4.22 Brazing Methods 605
4.23 Brazing of Aluminum 617x Contents
4.24 Microchannel Heat Exchangers .627
4.25 Cuprobraze Heat Exchanger 629
4.26 Brazing of Heat-Resistant Alloys, Stainless Steel, and
Reactive Metals 632
4.27 Post-Braze Cleaning after Lucasmilhaupt .634
4.28 Inspection and Testing of Brazed Joint 634
4.29 Nondestructive Testing Methods 635
4.30 Destructive Testing Methods 636
4.31 Soldering of Heat Exchangers .637
4.32 Nondestructive Testing of Soldered Heat Exchanger 644
4.33 Properties of Brazed Joints 645
4.34 Corrosion of Brazed Joints and Corrosion Control Methods 645
4.35 Corrosion of Soldered Joints 649
4.36 Evaluation of Design and Materials of Automotive Radiators 650
Annexures .651
Index 661
Index
A
Acoustical holography, 437
merits, 437
Acoustic emission testing (AE/AET), 444–449
acousto-ultrasonics (AU), 449
AE methods applications, 447
AE methods applications as per ASME code
sec V, 447
applications: role of AE in inspection and quality control
of pressure vessels and heat exchangers, 448
emission types and characteristics, 444
equipment, 447–448
factors influencing AE data, 448
Kaiser effect, 445
merits of acoustic emission testing, 449
physical phenomena that can release AE, 447
principle of acoustic emission, 444
reference code, 447
signal analysis, 448
source of acoustic emission, 444
written procedure for AET, 446
Acoustic pulse reflectometry (APR), 466
ASTM E2906/E2906M-18, 466
Advanced UT methods 439–444
advanced ultrasonic backscatter technique (AUBT), 440
dry-coupled ultrasonic testing (DCUT), 440
internal rotating inspection systems(IRIS), 442
long range ultrasonic testing (LRUT)/guided wave long
range UT, 441
rapid ultrasonic gridding (RUG), 440
time of flight diffraction (TOFD), 444
Alloys for subzero/cryogenic temperatures, 294–302
cryogenic vessels, 300
ductile–brittle transition temperature (DBTT), 295
fabrication of cryogenic vessels and heat
exchangers, 300
materials for low-temperature and cryogenic
applications, 295–300
aluminum for cryogenic applications, 296–297
austenitic stainless steel, 300
carbon steels and alloy plate steels, 298–299
copper and copper alloys, 297
nickel and high-nickel alloys, 297–298
products other than plate, 299–300
titanium and titanium alloys, 297
9% nickel steel, 300–301
guidelines for welding of 9% NI steel, 301
merits of 9% nickel steel, 301
postweld heat treatment, 301–302
welding problems with 9% NI steel, 301
notch toughness, 295
notch toughness: ASME code requirements, 295
requirements of materials for low-temperature
applications, 295
safety in cryogenics, 303
selection of material for low-temperature
applications, 295
welding of austenitic stainless steels for cryogenic
application, 302–303
charpy V-notch impact properties, 302
ferrite content, 302–303
nitrogen pickup, 303
oxide inclusion content, 303
sensitization, 302
Alternating current field measurement (ACFM), 465–466
applications, 466
Aluminium alloys: metallurgy, 237
corrosion prevention and control measures, 245–247
alclad alloys, 246
alloy and temper selection, 245
aluminum diffused steels in petroleum refinery heat
exchangers, 246
cathodic protection, 246
design aspects, 245
inhibitors, 246
modification of the environment, 246
thickened surface oxide film and organic
coating, 246
corrosion resistance, 241–243
chemical nature of aluminum: passivity, 242
resistance to waters, 242
seawater, 243
surface oxide film on aluminum, 241
fabrication, 247–249
joint geometry, 248
parameters affecting aluminum welding, 247
preheating, 248
shielding gas, 248
surface preparation and surface cleanliness, 248
welding filler metals, 249
welding methods, 249
forms of corrosion, 243–245
corrosion fatigue, 245
corrosion of aluminum in diesel engine cooling water
system, 245
crevice corrosion, 245
erosion corrosion, cavitation, and impingement
attack, 245
exfoliation corrosion, 244
galvanic corrosion, 243
intergranularcorrosion, 244
pitting corrosion, 243
stress corrosion cracking, 243
uniform corrosion, 243
properties of aluminum, 238
aluminum for heat exchanger applications, 238
product forms and shapes, 240–241
temper designation system of aluminum and
aluminum alloys, 240
wrought alloy designations, 238–240
classification of wrought alloys, 239662 Index
662
Assembly of channels/end closures, 577–580
bolt tightening, 577
hydrostatic testing, 578–580
cyclic hydrostatic testing of feedwater heater, 579
heaters, 579
Hydroproof , 579
hydrostatic test fluid, 579
improved method for hydrostatic testing of welded
tube-to-tubesheet joint of feedwater, 579
pneumatic test, 579
pneumatic testing procedure, 580
stamping, 580
standard test, 578
TEMA Standard requirement RCB-1.3, 578
use of fluorescent or visible tracer dyes in hydrostatic
test fluids, 579
Austenitic stainless steel, 194–219
alloying elements and microstructure, 196
composition of wrought alloys, 196
alloy types and their applications, 197
type 304, 197
type 310, 197
type 316, 197
austenitic stainless steel fabrication, 206
properties and metallurgy, 194–195
types of austenitic stainless steel, 194
alloy development, 194
welding, 206–219
control of distortion, 216
corrosion resistance of stainless steel welds, 219
ferrite content, 207
filler metal for various grades of stainless steel, 208
filler metal selection, 207
gas coverage, 216
hot cracking, 207
joining stainless and other steels, 215
joint design, 208
lining 219
mechanical properties at cryogenic temperature and
elevated temperature, 196
mechanism of corrosion resistance, 197–198
passive versus active behavior, 198
resistance to chemicals, 198
sigma phase, 198
stainless steel in seawater, 198
microfissuring or liquation cracking in austenitic
stainless steel weld, 209
nitrogen pickup, 212
porosity: beginning and end, 217
postweld cleaning 219
postweld heat treatment, 218
PWHT cracking, 218
properties of austenitic stainless steels, 195
protecting the roots of the welds against oxidation,
216–217
gas shielding, 216
root flux, 217
resistance to various forms of corrosion, 198–205
caustic SCC, 201
comparison of pitting and crevice corrosion of
stainless steels, 200
crevice corrosion, 200
critical crevice corrosion temperature, 200
critical pitting corrosion temperature, 200
evaluation of sensitization of austenitic SS to
PASCC, 203
factors influencing susceptibility to weld decay, 203
galvanic corrosion, 198
influence of nickel content on SCC, 201
intergranular corrosion, 203
knifelineattack, 205
laboratory tests to determine SCC, 203
localized forms of corrosion, 199
measures to overcome weld decay, 204
methods to prevent SCC of SS, 203
pitting corrosion, 199
pitting resistance number, 199
polythionic acid stress corrosion cracking
(PASCC) , 202
prediction of IGC by laboratory tests, 205
prevention of scc in boiling water reactors, 203
SCC of welded austenitic stainless steels, 201
stress corrosion cracking, 201
sensitization (weld decay) and corrosion
resistance, 215
shielding gases, 208
TIG welding techniques to overcome carbide
precipitation, 216
variable weld penetration, 214
welding considerations, 208
welding consumables, 211
welding defects, 217
welding fumes, 216
welding practices to improve the weld
performance, 216
welding procedure variations, 212
welding processes, 207, 212
welding stainless steels to dissimilar
metals, 218–219
filler metals for welding SS with dissimilar
metal, 219
methods to overcome dilution problems, 218
Automated corrosion mapping, 468
Automotive Radiators, see Evaluation of Design and
Materials of Automotive Radiators
B
Barkhausen noise analysis, 467–468
applications, 468
Bolted flange joint (BFJ), 70–97
BFJ technical requirements, 72
bolting design, 94–97
bolt area at the root of the threads, 95
determination of bolt loads, 94
flange bolt load W, 96
gasket seating conditions, 94
load concentration factor, 97
maximum recommended bolt spacing, 96
minimum bolt size, 96
minimum recommended bolt spacing, 96
operating conditions, 95Index 663
663
pitch circle diameter, 96
relaxation of bolt stress at elevated temperature, 97
bolting material, 80
design of bolted flange joints, 87–93
design procedure, 87
gasket dimensions, 92
gasket factor, m, 92
gasket materials, 89
gasket or joint contact surface unit seating load, y, 92
gasket parameters, 89
gasket profile, 90
gasket size, 91
gasket width and diametral location of gasket load
reaction, 93
selection of gasket material, 89
flange, 72–80
ASME code approved flange materials, 78
ASTM standards for flange material, 78
flange classes and types, 73
flanged joint construction, 73
flange face finish definition and common
terminology, 74
flange facings, 73
flange finish on gasket performance, 73
flange material selection, 78
flange standards, 74
flange standards-ASME specifications, 76
flange types, 72
selection of flange, 78
flange design, 97–99
bolting procedures, 99
flange moments, 97
flange thickness, 98
flanged joints in shell and tube heat exchanger, 85–87
collar bolts in shell and tube heat exchanger, 86
flange types found in shell and tube exchangers, 86
girth flange, 86
heat exchanger gaskets, 85
forces acting on the bolted flange connection, 70
gaskets, 80–85
effecting or creating a seal, 80
gasket categories, 80
gasket material considerations, 80
gasket seating, 81
gasket standards, 81
gasket types based on material, 81
guidelines for bolted flanged joint assembly
procedure, 82
maintaining the seal, 71
step-by-step procedure for integral/loose/optional flanges
design, 99
Brazing, 593–595
brazing, 593
brazing advantages, 594
brazing codes and standards, 594–595
ASME code section IX, welding, brazing, and fusing
qualifications, 594
AWS A2.4:2020: standard symbols for welding,
brazing, and nondestructive examination, 595
characteristics of brazing, 593
characteristics of soldering, 594
definition and general description of brazing and
soldering process, 593
disadvantages of brazing, 594
Brazing, elements of- 595–604
Brazing alloy or filler metals, 596
capillary attraction and joint clearance, 597
composition of filler metals, 597–600
aluminium filler metals, 597
ASME Code specification for filler metals, 600
cladding alloys, 598
copper fillers, 598
forms of filler metal, 599
gold-based fillers, 599
nickel-based filler metals, 599
placement of filler metal, 599
silver-based filler metals, 599
specification for filler metals for brazing, 597
fixturing, 603
fluxing, 601–602
composition of the flux, 601
selection of a flux, 601
varieties of flux, 601
fluxing methods, 602–603
demerits of brazing using corrosive fluxes, 603
heating method, 603–604
diffuse heating techniques, 604
local heating, 603
joint gap, 596
joint design, 595
postbraze treatment and removing flux residues,
604
chemical cleaning, 604
mechanical cleaning, 604
ultrasonic cleaning, 604
properties of brazed joints, 645
corrosion resistance, 645
mechanical properties, 645
microstructure, 645
precleaning and surface preparation, 600–601
chemical cleaning, 600
protection of precleaned parts, 601
scale and oxide removal, 600
selection of filler and flux, 597
Brazing methods, 605–617
dip brazing, 609
furnace brazing, 611–616
batch furnaces, 613
brazing furnace selection, 611
brazing furnace: vacuum vs. continuous-belt, 611
brazing process cycle in a batch furnace, 614
brazing thermal cycle, 613
continuous furnaces, 615
fundamentals of brazing process control, 612
six fundamentals of brazing to follow, 605
torchor or flame brazing, 606–609
brazing of inlet/outlet tubes to end plate of brazed
plate heat exchangers, 607
consumables–gas, 606
flame brazing of aluminium with copper, 607664 Index
664
flame brazing with hand-held filler or pre-placed
filler, 606, 607
induction brazing of return bends of heat exchanger
coil, 607
the induction brazing process, 607
joint clearances, 606
process parameters, 606
torch brazing of aluminum, 606
vacuum brazing, 616–617
braze stopoffs, 617
brazing process cycle in a vacuum furnace, 616
furnace brazing-safety awareness, 617
gases used in the process, 617
postbraze cleaning, 617
Brazing of aluminum, 617
AWS C3.7M/C3.7-2022: specification for aluminum
brazing, 617
aluminum alloys that can be brazed, 618
aluminum brazing methods, 619–627
aluminum dip brazing, 620
brazing of radiators and condensers, 620
brazing process, 623
controlled-atmosphere brazing (CAB) process, 623
controlled dry air brazing, 622
CAB process advantages, 623
furnace brazing, 622
inert-gas or controlled-atmosphere brazing of
aluminum, 622
key aspects of controlled atmosphere brazing
(CAB), 622
postbraze cleaning and finishing, 627
vacuum brazing of aluminum, 625
elements of aluminium brazing, 618–619
aluminum filler metals, 619
fluxing, 619
joint clearance/ select capillary size (Gap), 618
need for closer temperature control, 618
precleaning, 618
surface oxide removal, 618
Brazing of heat-resistant alloys, stainless steel and reactive
metals, 632–634
brazing of cobalt-based alloys, 633
brazing of nickel-based alloys, 632–633
brazing filler metals, 633
brazing of stainless steel, 633–634
brazeability of stainless steel, 633
brazing of reactive metals, 634
C
Carbon steels, 180–182
carbon steel tubes for feedwater applications, 181
corrosion resistance, 181
fabrication, 182–183
arc welding of carbon steels, 182
hardness limitation for refinery service, 182
plate cutting, 182
weldability considerations, 182
welding defects, 183
welding processes, 182
product forms, 180
refinery operations, 181
steel making process improvements, 179
steels, 179
types of steel, 180
use of carbon steels, 180
Cast iron, 178
Ceramics, 292–293
classification of engineering ceramics, 292
Hexoloy silicon carbide heat exchanger tube, 293
suitability of ceramics for heat exchanger
construction, 292
types of ceramic heat exchanger construction, 292
Chromium–molybdenum steels, 187–189
applications, 189
composition and properties, 188
creep strength, 189
welding metallurgy, 189–192
advanced 3
Cr–Mo–Ni steels, 192
control of temper embrittlement of weld metal, 191
CVN impact properties, 191
filler metal, 190
Larson–Miller tempering parameter, 191
modified 9
Cr–1Mo steel, 192
postweld heat treatment (stress relief), 191
preheating, 190
reheat cracking in Cr–Mo and Cr–Mo–V steels, 192
step-cooling heat treatment, 191
temper embrittlement of weld metal, 191
temper embrittlement susceptibility, 190
welding processes, 190
Cladding, 303
ASME Code requirements in using clad material, 317
clad tubesheets, 317
forming of clad steel plates, 318
cladding thickness, 304
clad plate, 304
backing materials, 304
corrosion resistance cladding grades, 304
explosive cladding, 313–316
angular geometry, 314, 316
explosion cladding process sequence, 314
inspection of joint quality, 316
plug welding, 316
tube-to-tubesheet welding, 316
welding geometries, 314
materials & standards of clad steel plates, 311–313
ASTM specification for clad plate, 312–313
stainless steel clad metal, 312
standard & specification, 312
titanium clad steel plate, 312
methods of cladding, 304–308
loose lining, 306
thermal spraying, 306
weld overlaying or weld surfacing, 307
weld dilution, 307–308
roll cladding, 310–311
inspection of overlays, 310Index 665
665
nickel alloy cladding, 310
procedure and welder qualification, 310
stainless steel strip cladding, 310
weld overlay cladding methods, 308–310
processing of explosion clad plates, 317
test and inspection [295], 313
inspection of stainless steel cladding, 313
welding of stainless steel clad plate, 317–320
selection of filler metals, 318–319
titanium clad steel repair, 319–320
welding clad plate by SMAW process, 318
Composite, 294
ASME code section X fiber-reinforced plastic pressure
vessels, 294
fiberglass tanks and vessels, 294
Conventional double tubesheet design, 60
conventional double tubesheet design TEMA
guidelines, 60
Copper, 249–260
copper alloy designation-UNS system, 250
wrought alloys, 250
copper and aquatic life, 257
copper corrosion, 254–257
biofouling, 256
condensate corrosion, 255
cooling-water applications, 256
corrosion fatigue, 256
corrosion resistance, 254
dealloying (dezincification), 254
dealuminification, 255
denickelification, 255
deposit attack, 256
erosion–corrosion, 255
exfoliation, 257
galvanic corrosion, 254
hot-spot corrosion, 256
intergranular corrosion, 254
pitting corrosion, 254
resistance to seawater corrosion, 256
snake skin formation, 256
steam-side stress corrosion cracking, 255
stress corrosion cracking, 255
sulfide attack, 256
copper heat exchanger applications, 250–253
copper in steam generation, 250
designation of copper and copper alloys used as heat
exchanger materials, 25
product forms–copper tubes for heat exchanger, 251
copper welding, 257–259
brasses, 259
copper alloys, 259
copper–aluminum alloys (aluminum bronzes), 260
copper–nickel or cupronickel alloys, 260
factors affecting weldability, 258
hot cracking, 258
porosity, 259
preheating, 258
PWHT, 260
silicon bronzes, 259
thermal conductivity, 258
thermal expansion, 258
weldability, 257
weldability considerations, 259–260
welding precautions, 259
welding with dissimilar metal, 260
Corrosion of brazed joints and corrosion control methods,
645–649
corrosion protection, 647–649
corrosion tests [138], 648
multi-metal closed-loop systems, 648
protective coatings, 648
sacrificial zinc coatings, 648
trivalent chromium process coating, 648
corrosion protection in all aluminum microchannel
coil, 647
forms of corrosion, 647
galvanic corrosion resistance, 646
influence of brazing process, 646
factors affecting corrosion of brazedjoints, 645
Corrosion of soldered joints, 649–650
manufacturing procedures to control solder bloom
corrosion, 650
solder bloom corrosion, 649
Cuprobraze heat exchanger, 629–632
brazing process, 630
high-performance coatings, 631
round tube versus flat tube, 631
tube fabrication, 629
Curved tubesheets, 60
Cylindrical shell, end closures, and formed heads under
internal pressure, 61–64
cylindrical shell under internal pressure, 62
design for external pressure and/or internal vacuum, 63
end closures and formed heads, 64–69
ASME F&D head, 67
conical, 66
ellipsoidal, 65
elliptical head 2:1, 67
flat cover, 64
hemispherical, 64
Klöpper head, 67
Korbbogen head, 67
minimum thickness of heads and closures, 67
torispherical head (or flanged and dished head), 67
thick spherical shells, 63
thin cylindrical shells, 62
D
Design methods and design criteria for heat
exchanger, 19–22
allowable stress, 21
ASME code section VIII design criteria, 20
combined-thickness approach for clad plates, 21
design by analysis (DBA), 20
design by rule (DBR), 20
design criteria, 20
design loads, 19
strength theories, 21
stress categorization, 20666 Index
666
welded joints, 22–23
joint categories, 22
welded joint efficiencies, 22
weld joint types, 23
Destructive testing methods, 636–637
Details of manufacture of STHE, 497–509
details of manufacturing drawing, 497–501
fabrication requirements, 499
edge preparation and rolling of shell sections,
tack welding, and alignment for welding of
longitudinal seams, 505–508
fabrication of shell–general, 507
identification ofmaterials, 505
positive material identification (PMI), 505
plate bending, 508–509
roll bending, 508
quality control during assembly of parts, 503
quality control during production welding, 500–501
shell and tube heat exchanger fabrication and
inspectionnes, 501
tube bundle assembly, see Tube bundle assembly
tubesheet and baffle drilling, see Tubesheet and baffle
drilling
welding of shells, checking the dimensions, and
subjecting pieces to radiography, 509–514
attachment of expansion joints, 513
checking the circularity of shell and the assembly fit,
with nozzles and expansion joints welded, 513
dimensional check, 509
flanges, 512
operations checklist list for nozzles on shell/dish
welding, 512
PWHT of shells, 513
reinforcing pads and testing, 512
supports, 513
welding of nozzles, 510
Drones use in nondestructive testing, 468
Duplex stainless steels, 225–234
advantages over the common austenitic stainless
steels, 227
categories of duplex stainless steel, 226
characteristics of duplex SS, 226
comparison of duplex SS with austenitic and ferritic
stainless steels, 228
composition, 227
corrosion resistance, 229–230
intergranular corrosion, 230
pitting and crevice corrosion, 229
PRE
N of duplex stainless steels, 229
resistance to chemical environments, 229
expansion of tube to tubesheet joints, 234
metallurgy of duplex stainless steels, 227
Norsok standard, 233–234
process applications, 230
products, 228
welding methods, 231–233
balancing the austenite and ferrite phases, 231
ferrite in duplex stainless steels, 233
gas shielding, 232
heat input, 231
liquation cracking, 232
postweld stress relief, 233
precipitation of chromium nitrides, 232
sigma phase embrittlement and 475oC
embrittlement, 232
weldability, 231
welding consumables, 232
welding practices to retain corrosion resistance, 233
welding methods for modern duplex stainless steels, 234
Dynamic NDT methods, 468
E
Eddy current testing(ET/ECT), 449–459
ASTM specifications, 453
automated surface inspection using eddy current array
technology, 459
calibration, 458
common applications, 450
eddy current arrays, 459
eddy current examinations methods as per ASME code
Sec. V, 452
eddy current techniques, 450
eddy current test equipment, 454
eddy current testing, 451
eddy current testing principle, 449
inspection method for tube interior, 458
inspection of ferromagnetic tubes, 458
inspection or test frequency and its effect on flaw
detectability, 456
limitations of eddy current testing, 458
merits of ET and comparison with other methods, 458
operating variables, 456–457
depth of penetration and frequency, 456
edge effect, 457
fill factor and probe size requirements, 457
skin effect, 457
probes, 454
probe configuration, 454
reference standards for eddy current testing, 453
signal processing, 455
testing of weldments, 458
tube inspection, 451
written procedure for eddy current testing, 453
Electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMAT), 469–470
Electromagnetic sorting of ferrous metals, 469
ASTM E566-19, 469
Equipment design features, 151–152
access for inspection, 151
equipment life, 151
fail safe features, 151
field trials, 152
maintenance, 151
safety, 151
Evaluation of design and materials of automotive radiators,
650–651
Mechanical durability tests, 650
tests for corrosion resistance, 650–651
Expansion joints, 102–103
bellows or formed membrane, 111–119Index 667
667
applications, 113
ASME code sec VIII div 1 bellows expansion joints
article 26, 117
bellows design: circular expansion joints, 115
bellows materials, 115
construction, 111
cycle life, 115
EJMA standards, 115
end fittings, 114
flow turbulence, 114
limitations and means to improve the operational
capability of bellows, 117
movement capabilities, 113
classification of expansion joints, 103
flexibility of expansion joints, 103
formed head or flanged-and-flued head, 103–111
ASME code and TEMA procedure for design, 108
construction, 105
design method as per ASME code sec VIII div 1, 110
design of formed head expansion joints, 106
finite element analysis, 107
Kopp and Sayre model, 106
Singh and Soler model, 106
TEMA procedure, 108
TEMA RCB–8.1.1 analyis sequence, 110
F
Fabrication of the shell and tube heat exchanger, 494–497
manufacturing and testing, 495
quality assurance plan (QAP), 495–497
hold points and witness points, 497
inspection and test plan, 495
features of ITP, 497
Ferritic stainless steels, 220
conventional ferritic stainless steels, 220
corrosion resistance, 224
intergranular corrosion, 224
fabricability, 224
“new” and “old” ferritic and austenitic stainless
steels, 220
superferritic stainless steel, 220–224
applications, 222
characteristics, 222
ductile–brittle transition, 224
physical properties, 223
strength, 223
superferriticsalloy composition, 221
toughness and embrittling phenomena, 223
welding, 224–225
Flanged tubesheets: TEMA design procedure A.1.3.3, 58
tubesheet extended as flange, 58
Foundation loading diagrams drawings, 582–583
installation, maintenance, and operating instructions, 583
schematics or flow diagrams, 583
Fundamentals of tubesheet design, 35–38
fixed tubesheet heat exchanger, 35
floating head heat exchanger, 38
tubesheet connection with the shell and channel, 35
u-tube tubesheet, 36
G
Glass, 290–291
applications, 290
construction types, 290
drawbacks of glass material, 290–291
glass-lined steel, 290
mechanical properties and resistance to chemicals, 290
Graphite, 285–289
applications of impervious graphite heat exchangers, 287
cubic graphite heat exchangers, 287
drawbacks associated with graphite, 287
equipment applications and service limitations, 286
graphite plate exchanger, 288
impregnated graphite, 285
shell and tube heat exchanger, 288
standard test method for impregnated graphite
(mandatory appendix 38), 286
H
Heads and closures, 583–585
ASME flanged and dished (ASME F&D) heads, 583
cones, 590
conical, 585
crown-and-segment (C and S) technique, 588
dimensional check of heads, 592
dished heads, 586
flat heads, 585
forming methods, 585–593
hemispherical head, 585
pressing, 587
pressure vessel heads, 583
purchased end closures, 592
PWHT of dished ends, 590
semi-elliptical (SE) heads, 584
spinning, 586
torispherical head, 585
Heat exchanger tube inspection methods, 464–465
eddy current testing of chiller tubes, 465
Hot cracking, 172
factors responsible for hot cracking, 172
susceptible alloys, 172
types of hot cracking, 172–176
chevron cracking, 176
crater cracks, 176
ductility dip cracking, 176
heat-affected zone liquation cracking, 173
reheat cracking or stress-relief cracking, 174–176
avoidance of reheat cracking, 175
susceptible alloys, 175
underclad cracking, 175
solidification cracking, 173
elements contributing to solidification cracking, 173
welding procedure-related factors responsible for
solidification cracking, 173
Hydrogen damage, 147–150
detecting hydrogen damage, 149
fabricability, 150
high temperature hydrogen attack, 148
hydrogen embrittlement, 147668 Index
668
MR 0175/ISO 15156, 149
Nelson curves, 148
prevention of hydrogen attack, 148
sources of hydrogen, 147
types of hydrogen damage, 147
I
In-service examination of heat exchangers for detection of
leaks, 482–485
Inspection, 362–364
definitions, 362
design and inspection, 363
detailed checklist for components, 364
inspection guidelines, 363
master traveler, 364
objectives of inspection, 362
scope of inspection of heat exchangers, 363
material control and raw material inspection, 363
positive material identification, 363
TEMA Standards for inspection, 364
third-party inspection, 364
hold points and witness points, 364
Inspection and testing of brazed joint, 634–635
discontinuities, 635
quality of the brazed joints, 634
K
Key terms in pressure vessel and heat exchanger
design, 24–25
corrosion allowance, 25
design pressure, 24
design temperature, 24
maximum allowable working pressure, 24
operating pressure or working pressure, 25
operating temperature or working temperature, 25
L
Laboratory tests for determining susceptibility to cracking,
176–178
multitask varestraint weldability testing system, 177
varestraint (variable restraint) test, 177
weldability tests, 176
Leak testing (LI), 474–482
ASTM standards for LT, 475
helium mass leak detection methods, 480–482
helium mass spectrometer test—detector probe
technique, 481
helium mass spectrometer test—tracer probe
technique, 481
helium mass spectrometer vacuum test—hood
technique, 481
leak test methods, 476–480
acoustical leak detection, 476
acoustic emission leak testing, 479
“bombing” test, 478
bubble leak testing, 476
dye penetrant method, 477
gas leak lake testing, 476
halogen diode detector probe test method, 479
inside-out helium vacuum chamber leak testing, 477
outside-in helium leak testing, 477
pressure change testing, 477
pressure decay test, 477
vacuum decay test or pressure rise test, 477
radiotracer technique, 478
tracer gas leak testing, 479
ultrasonic leak detection, 476
water immersion bubble test method, 476
LT methods as per ASME code Sec V, 475
requirements of leak testing, 475
written procedure, 474
Lifting devices and attachments, 128
Liquid penetrant inspection (PT), 391–396
acceptance standards, 395
applications, 392
developments in PT, 395
evaluation of indications, 395
excess penetrant removal, 395
limitations, 392
merits of PT, 392
method of inspection, 394
penetrants, 393
approved material, 394
penetrant application, 394
penetration time or dwell time, 394
postcleaning, 395
principle of inspection, 391
selection of developer, 394
standards, 393
standardization of light levels for penetrant and magnetic
inspection, 395
surface preparation, 394
techniques, 391
test procedure, 393
written procedure, 392
Low-alloy steels, 183–185
applications of low-alloy steel plates, 184
carbon–manganese steels, 184
carbon–manganese–molybdenum steels, 185
carbon–molybdenum steels, 184
low-alloy steels for pressure vessel constructions, 184
selection of steels for pressure vessel construction, 183
M
Magnetic flux leakage technique, 470–471
Magnetic particle inspection (MT), 396–403
acceptance standards, 403
application of examination medium, 402
demagnetization, 402
equipment for magnetic particle inspection, 400
evaluation of indications, 402
examination coverage, 401
factors affecting the formation and appearance of the
magnetic particles pattern, 398
inspection medium (magnetic particles), 401
inspection method, 402
dry method, 402
wet method, 402
interpretation of indications, 403Index 669
669
limitations of the method, 398
magnetizing current, 399
magnetizing technique, 400–401
coil magnetization, 400
prod magnetization, 401
yoke magnetization, 401
merits of MT, 398
MT techniques, 396
principle, 396
record of test data, 402
reference documents, 398
surface preparation for testing, 399
test procedure, 398
written procedure, 399
magnetic particle examination procedure
deficiencies, 399
Magnetic rubber techniques (MRT), 403
Making up certificates, 582
Material selection principles, 135–136
ASME code material requirements, 136–137
Section II materials, 137
Section VIII div.1, 137
Section VIII div.1 requirements for pressure vessels
constructed of nonferrous materials, 137
cost, 150
cost-effective material selection, 150
desired material requirements features, 135
evaluation of materials, 150
functional requirements of materials, 138–146
brittle fracture, 139
corrosion failures, 146
corrosion resistance, 145
creep, 141
fatigue strength, 139
heat and corrosion, 144
hydrogen damage, see Hydrogen damage
strength, 138
temperature resistance, 142
toughness, 140
international material specifications, 138
material selection factors, 136
possible failure modes and damage in service, 150–151
review of operating process, 136
sources of material data, 146
unified numbering system, 137
Materials for heat exchanger and pressure vessel
construction, 155–156
metals, 155
materials for high-temperature heat exchangers, 285
non-metals, 156
Mechanical design of pressure vessels and heat
exchangers, 5–15
ASME codes, 10–15
Code interpretations, 15
comparison of ASME code section VIII div. 1 versus
div. 2, 14
scope of the ASME code section VIII pressure
vessels, 12
section X fiber-reinforced plastic pressure vessels, 14
section XIII, rules for overpressure protection, 14
structure of section VIII, division 1, 13
submittals, 15
codes, 9–10
introduction to few international codes for unfired
pressure vessels, 10
structure of the codes, 9
design standards used for the mechanical design of heat
exchangers (STHE), 7–9
differences among TEMA classes R, C, and B, 8
other standards for STHE, 8
TEMA standards (section 5, RCB-1.1.1), 7
Standards and Codes, 5–6
benefits of standardization, 6
national standards, 6
trade or manufacturer’s association standards, 6
Mechanical design of STHE, 30–35
ASME code sec VIII div 1 part UHX rules for STHE, 31
content of mechanical design of STHE, 33
design loadings, 35
design of STHE components, 35
mechanical design and pressure vessel codes and
standards, 31
mechanical design procedure, 33
required information for mechanical design, 31
sequence of decisions to be made during mechanical
design, 32
software for mechanical design of heat exchanger, 33
STHE types, 30
Microchannel heat exchangers (MCHE), 627–629
brazing of MCHE, 627
Microwave non-destructive testing, 472
N
Nickel and nickel-base alloys: metallurgy and properties,
260–269
classification of nickel alloys, 261–264
commercially pure nickel, 261
Inconel and inco alloy, 261
magnetic properties and differentiation of nickels, 264
nickel–copper alloys and copper–nickel alloys, 261
nickel–iron–chromium alloys and Inco nickel–
iron–chromium alloys for high-temperature
applications, 263
90-10 and 70-30 copper–nickel alloys, 261
corrosion resistance, 264–267
galvanic corrosion, 264
intergranular corrosion, 264
pitting resistance, 264
stress corrosion cracking, 266
Hastelloy 269
welding, 267–269
carbide precipitation, 268
considerations while welding nickel, 267
heat input, 268
hot cracking, 268
joint designs, 267
lead embrittlement, 268
pitting corrosion of weldments, 269
strainage cracking, 269670 Index
670
sulfur embrittlement, 268
weldability, 267–269
postweld heat treatment, 269
welding methods, 269
Nondestructive testing methods, 374–385
acceptance criteria, 377
auditing the NDT procedures, 384
cost of NDT, 377–380
the benefits of NDT for a business, 380
the economic aspects of NDT, 377
destructive testing (mechanical testing), 374
discontinuities, 384–385
defect detection, 385
defect detection capability, 385
surface techniques, 385
volumetric techniques, 385
examination procedure-general requirements, 376
inspection equipment, 381
level I, II and III qualifications as per SNT-TC-1A-
2020, 380
NDT personnel qualifications, 380
personnel, 380
qualification(s), 376
reference codes and standards, 381
ASME code section V: nondestructive
examination, 381
training of NDT personnel, 380
NDT standards, 374–375
ASME Code section V nondestructive
examination, 375
ASNT standards, 375
ASTM E1316-21 standard terminology for
nondestructive examinations, 375
ASTM standards, 375
AWS B1.10M/B1.10:2016 guide for the
nondestructive examination of welds, 375
NDT symbols, 381–382
specify NDT locations, 382
NDT techniques, 375–376
advanced NDT techniques, 375
conventional NDT techniques, 375
scope of NDT, 374
selection of NDT methods, 377
capabilities and limitations of NDT methods, 377
third-party inspection in NDT, 384
written procedures, 383
content of NDT procedures, 383
deficiencies in NDT procedures, 383
general details of requirements in the NDT procedure
document, 383
Nondestructive testing methods of brazed joints, 635–636
Nondestructive testing of soldered heat exchanger, 644
destructive testing, 644
discontinuities, 644
pressure and leak testing, 644
removal of residual flux, 644
visual inspection, 644
Nozzles, 120–123
design of pressure vessel nozzles, 122
nozzle openings reinforcement, 123
standards for nozzle design, 123–124
WRC 107/537 analysis, 124
types of nozzles, 121
O
Opening and nozzles, 119–120
openings, 119
reinforcement pad, 120
reinforcement pad and air–soap solution testing, 120
Optical holography NDT, 470
holographic interferometry in crack detection, 470
real-time holographic interferometry, 470
P
PAIRT, 474
Pipefittings, 100
Pipes and tubes, 160
selection of tubes for heat exchangers, 160–163
ASTM specifications for ferrous alloys tubings 162
corrosion tests 161
defect detection 160
dimensional tolerance tests 161
hydrostatic pressure testing 161
pneumatic test 161
specifications for tubes 160
standard testing for tubular products 161
tubing requirements, 160
Plate steels, 156–160
classifications and designations of plate steels: carbon
and alloy steels, 156–158
ASTM specifications on plate steels used for pressure
vessel fabrications and heat exchangers, 157
how do plate steels gain their properties?, 156
mill scale, 159–160
processing of plate steels, 158–159
Plate steels weldability problems, 163
cold cracking, 163
hydrogen-induced cracking, 163–168
avoiding hydrogen cracking, 163
preheating, interpass temperature, and
postheating, 164
lamellar tearing, 168–172
conditions that promote lamellar tearing 169
detection of lamellar tearing after welding 172
prevention of lamellar tearing 170
structures/locations prone to lamellar tearing 170
underbead cracking, 168
fish-eye cracking 172
hot cracking, see Hot cracling
Post braze cleaning, 634
cleaning methods for post-braze flux removal, 634
Postweld heat treatment (PWHT) of welded joints in steel
pressure vessels and heat exchangers, 320–324
ASME code requirements for PWHT, 321
defects arising due to heat treatment, 323
effectiveness of heat treatment, 323
effects of changes in steel quality and PWHT, 321
methods of PWHT, 323
NDT after PWHT, 324Index 671
671
objectives of heat treatment, 320
possible welding-related failures, 324
PWHT cycle, 322
quality control during heat treatment, 322–323
types of heat treatment, 320–321
Preparation of heat exchangers for shipment,
581–582
nitrogen filling, 582
other protection considerations, 581
painting, 582
TEMA guidelines G-6, 581–582
Pressure vessels, 1–5
fired and unfired pressure vessel, 1–5
heat exchangers, 3
hazards due to failures of pressure vessels, 5
unfired pressure vessels, 2
types of pressure vessels, 1
Pressure vessels design, 25–30
common causes of failures and explosions in pressure
vessels, 30
compliance with ASME code, 30
construction details of pressure vessels, 25
data required for a pressure vessel design, 27
design considerations, 27
design parameters, 28
geometry definition, 27
materials of construction, 28
methods of construction of pressure vessels, 29
minimum wall thickness, 28
outlets and drains, 26
pressure equipment devices, 26
pressure vessel design codes, 26
pressure vessel shapes, 25
types of pressure vessel heads, 25
venting and relief devices, 26
Pulsed eddy current (PEC) examination, 462–464
Q
Quality and quality control, 337–338
aims of quality control, 338
Quality assurance program (QAP), 338–339
contents of QAP for pressure vessels and heat
exchangers, 339
essential elements of QAP, 338
need for quality assurance, 338
quality assurance in fabrication of heat exchangers and
pressure vessels, 338
Quality control and quality assurance system for brazing of
heat exchangers, 605
Quality control (QC) and quality assurance(QA), 337
Quality costs, 343–344
appraisal costs, 343
external failure costs, 343
internal failure costs, 343
optimum cost of quality, 343
prevention costs, 343
Quality management, 345
quality Gurus–their contribution for quality management,
345–346
quality philosophies of Deming, Juran, and Crosby,
346–347
Crosby four absolutes of quality, 347
Crosby vaccine, 347
Deming PDCA cycle, 346
Juran’s contribution to concepts of quality, 346
Quality management in industry, 337
Quality manual, 341–343
contents of manual, 342
main documents of the quality system, 342–343
checklist, 343
operation process sheet, 342
quality assurance program, 342
Quality review and evaluation procedures, 344
auditing, 344
Quality system, 339–341
ASME code: elements of quality control system, 341
correction of nonconformities, 341
inspection of vessels and vessel parts, 341
material control, 341
records retention, 341
features of QC system, 339
Quality tools and quality improvements methods, 347–362
5S, 355–356
ISO 9000, 352–354
benefits of ISO 9000, 353
ISO 9000 series, 352–353
ISO 9001 quality management system, 353
Kaizen, 357–358
the core of Kaizen, 358
lean, 358–359
lean manufacturing, 359
lean tools, 360
lean-six sigma, 362
lean vs. six sigma, 361
MBNQA, 355
plan-do-check-act (PDCA) cycle, 354
PDSA technique, 354
7 quality control (7-QC) tools, 348–352
check sheets, 350
fishbone diagram or cause and effect diagram,
349–350
histogram, 348
Pareto analysis (80-20 rule), 349
scatter diagram, 351
statistical quality control and control chart, 351–352
stratification, 351
six big losses, 359
six sigma quality management methodology, 360–362
six sigma tools and methods, 361
total quality management, 355
elements of total quality management, 355
total productive maintenance(TPM), 356–357
TPM pillars and 5S, 357
goals of TPM, 357
Quenched and tempered steels, 185–187
ASTM specifications, 185
compositions and properties, 185
joint design, 187
postweld heat treatment, 187672 Index
672
preheat, 187
stress-relief cracking, 187
weldability, 186
welding processes, 187
R
Radiographic testing, 404–418
acceptance criteria, 415
application, 405
ASTM standards, 407
computed tomography, 415
density of radiographs, 412
digital radiography, 416–417
digitization of radiographs and laser scanner system, 418
documentation, 415
examination of radiographs, 414
full radiography, 409
gamma radiography, 418
gammascopy, 418
general procedure in radiography, 407
high-energy radiography, 418
identification marks, 407
image quality indicators, 412
how to calculate IQI sensitivity, 412–414
number of IQIs, 412
imaging plate, 418
location markers, 407
merits and limitations, 405
microfocus radiography, 415
neutron radiography, 417
other methods in radiography, 415
panoramic radiography with isotopes, 408
principle of radiography, 404
processing of X-ray films, 408
radiographic quality, 411
radiographic sensitivity, 411
radiation sources (X-rays and gamma rays), 405
comparison of X-ray and gamma-ray radiography, 405
radiographic techniques for weldments of pressure
vessels, 408
radioscopy, 417
ASME code sec V
reference documents, 407
requirements of radiography, 406
RT methods, 404
safety in RT, 407
spot radiography, 410
surface preparation, 408
written procedure, 406
X-ray clues to welding discontinuities, 414
X-ray fluoroscopy, 418
Raw material forms used in the construction of heat
exchangers, 152–154
castings, 152
forgings, 152
handling of materials, 154
material selection for pressure boundary components,
154–155
baffles, 155
shell, channel, covers, and bonnets, 154
testing and inspection, 155
tubes, 154
tubesheet, 155
tubing forms, 154
tubing materials, 154
materials selection for bolted joints, 153
rods and bars, 153
Rectangular tubesheet design, 58–59
methods of tubesheet analysis, 59
Remote field eddy current testing((RFEC), 460–461
Replication metallography, 472–473
applications, 473
S
Selection of carbon steels, 179–180
Selection of cast iron, 178–179
Service-oriented cracking, 178
temper embrittlement or creep embrittlement, 178
Shearography, 473–474
digital shearography, 474
Smart PIG, 472
Soldering, definition, 593
Soldering of heat exchangers, 637–644
elements of soldering, 637–639
cleaning and descaling, 639
joint design, 637
soldering fluxes, 639
solders, 637
tube joints, 637
tube-to-header solder joints, 637
soldering processes, 639–640
flux residue removal, 640
stages of radiator manufacture, 639
ultrasonic soldering of aluminum heat exchangers,
640–644
basic processes for soldering all-aluminum coils, 640
material that can be ultrasonically soldered, 640
Stainless steels, 192–195
ASTM specification for stainless steels, 193
classification and designation, 192
designations, 193
guidance for stainless steel selection, 193
martensitic stainless steel, 193
newer stainless steels for heat exchanger service, 195
stainless steel for heat exchanger applications, 195
Stress analysis, 15–16
classes and categories of stresses, 15
membrane stress, 16
primary stress, 16
stress categories, 15
stress classification, 15
Stress categories, 16–19
discontinuity stresses, 19
failure modes, stress limits and stress categories, 18
fatigue analysis, 19
local membrane stress, Pl, 17
peak stress, F, 18
primary bending stress, Pb, 17
primary membrane stress, Pm, 16
secondary stress, 17Index 673
673
stress intensity, 19
thermal stresses, 18
Superaustenitic stainless steels, 235–237
applications, 236
corrosion resistance, 236
4.5% Mo superaustenitic steels, 235
6% Mo superaustenitic stainless steel, 235
welding, 237
postweld heat treatment, 237
Super duplex stainless steel, 234–235
difference between duplex and super duplex stainless
steels, 235
properties and characteristics, 234
Supports, 124–125
design basics, 125
design loads, 125
horizontal vessel supports, 125–127
leg supports, 127
ring supports, 127
saddle supports, 125
zickstress, 126
procedure for support design, 128
ASME code, 128
TEMA rules for supports design (G-7.1), 128
vertical vessels, 127–128
lug supports, 128
skirt supports, 127
T
Tantalum, 284–285
corrosionresistance, 284
heat transfer properties, 284
performance compared with other materials, 284
welding, 285
Taper-Lok heat exchanger closure, 100–102
zero-gap flange, 101–102
Teflon, 291–292
design considerations, 291
fluoropolymer resin development, 292
heat exchanger fabrication technology, 292
heat exchangers of teflon in the chemical processing
industry, 291
teflon as heat exchanger material, 291
Titanium: properties and metallurgy, 269–281
alloy specification, 270
applications, 274–275
applications in PHE, 275
chemical processing, 275
refinery and chemical processing, 275
titanium tubing for surface condensers, 274
corrosion resistance, 273
resistance to waters, 273
surface oxide film, 273
crystallographic structures of titanium, 270
fabrication, 275–276
tubesheet materials-galvanic consideration, 275
tube vibration and rigidity, 275
forming of titanium-clad steel plate, 281
forms of corrosion, 273–274
crevice corrosion, 274
erosion–corrosion, 274
galvanic corrosion, 273
hydrogen embrittlement, 273
MIC, 274
stress corrosion cracking, 274
properties that favour heat exchanger applications, 270
thermal performance, 274
fouling, 274
titanium grades and alloys, 272
ASTM and ASME specifications for mill product
forms, 272
titanium tubes for condensers and heat
exchangers, 272
unalloyed and alloyed grades, 272
welding of titanium, 276–281
cleaning titanium, 277
degreasing, 277
descaling or oxide removal, 278
filler metal, 278
heat treatment, 281
joint design, 277
manufacturing facilities, 277
method to evaluate the gas shielding, 280
MIG welding, 280
precleaning and surface preparation, 277
preheating, 278
rinsing, 278
shielding gases, 276
weldability considerations, 276
weld defects, 280
welding methods, 276
welding of titanium to dissimilar metals, 276
welding procedures, 279
welding titanium in an open-air environment with three
shielding gases, 279
Thermography, 474
Tube bundle assembly, 519–526
assembly of tube bundle inside the shell, 523
assembly of tube bundle outside the shell, 519
assembly of U-tube bundle, 520
cautions to exercise while inserting tubes, 522
impingement plate attachment, 522
tube bundle assembly methods, 519
tube bundle insertion inside the shell, 523
tube nest assembly of large steam condensers, 526
Tube inspection, 459–465
automated tube inspection system, 465
tube inspection with magnetic flux leakage, 459–460
tube inspection with near field testing, 461–462
Tubesheet and baffle drilling, 514–519
checklist for tubesheet inspection after fabrication, 517
drilling of baffles, 518
preparation of tube holes, 517
tube hole finish, 517
tubesheet drilling, 514
Tubesheet design as per ASME code Sec VIII div 1,
46–47
design considerations, 46
general conditions of applicability for tubesheets, 46674 Index
674
design of fixed tubesheets of fixed tubesheet heat
exchanger, 47
conditions of applicability, 47
design considerations, 47
design of floating head heat exchanger tubesheets, 48
conditions of applicability, 48
design considerations, 48
design of U-tube heat exchanger tubesheets, 47–48
calculation procedure for simply supported U-tube
tubesheets, 48
design considerations, 48
tubesheet characteristics, 46
tubesheet extension, 49
design considerations, 49
Tubesheet design as per TEMA Standards (appendix
A-nonmandatory section), 49–58
compressive stress induced in the tubes located at the
periphery of the tube bundle, 57
determination of effective design pressure, 53
differential pressure design, after Yokell, 56
effective differential design pressure, P, 56
merits of differential pressure design, 56
equivalent differential expansion pressure, Pd, 53
longitudinal stress induced in the shell and tube
bundle, 56
in the tubes located at the periphery of the tube bundle,
σ
t,l, 57
maximum allowable joint loads, 58
minimum tubesheet thickness as per TEMA, 52
parameter F, 50
shear formula, 51
shell longitudinal stress, σs,l (A.2.2), 56
stress category concept in TEMA, 53
tubesheet formula for bending, 49
tube-to-tubesheet joint loads (A.2.5), 58
Tubesheet design procedure: historical background, 38–40
assumptions in tubesheet analysis, 38
basis of tubesheet design, 40–46
analytical treatment of tubesheets, 41
deflection, slope, and bending moment, 43
design analysis, 41
factors that control tubesheet thickness, 45
parameter Z, 45
supported tubesheet and unsupported tubesheet, 45
Tubesheet diagram for windows, 465
Tubesheet to shell welding, 526–527
Tube-to-tubesheet joint fabrication, 527–553
mock-up test, 529
ASME code requirements, 530
preferred method of making the tube-to-tubesheet
joint, 529
quality assurance program for tube-to-tubesheet
joint, 529
requirements for expanded tube-to-tubesheet joints, 532
major causes of joint leaks, 532
tube expansion, 527
tube expansion by rolling, 534–553
amount of thinning of tubes, 544
basic rolling process, 535
common causes of tube joint failure, 546
correct tube wall reduction, 544
criterion for rolling-in adequacy, 542
determining 3, 4, or 5 roll expander design, 544
expanding in double tubesheets, 552
factors affecting rolling process, 539
full-depth rolling, 546
hydraulic expansion, 548
joint cleanliness, 546
joint leak tightness, 551
joint reinforcements, 551
leak testing, 553
length of tube expansion, 545
mechanical rolling methods, 534
methods to check the degree of expansion, 541
optimum degree of expansion, 541
phenomenon of tube end growth during rolling, 546
residual stresses in tube-to-tubesheet joints, 553
roller expander for tube extending beyond the
tubesheet, 552
rolling equipment, 534
size of tube holes, 547
step rolling, 552
strength and leak tightness of rolled joints, 549
TEMA guidelines for tube wall reduction RGP-RCB-
7.3, 542
tube hole grooving, RB-7.2.4, 542
wall reduction as the criterion of rolling-in
adequacy, 543
tube-to-tubesheet joint expansion and /or welding
sequence, 528
tube-to-tubesheet joint expansion methods, 532–533
explosive joining, 533
hydraulic expansion, 532
rolling-in process, 532
Tube-to-tubesheet joint welding, 553–577
certain preparation for tube to tubesheet welding,
556–558
automated or manual welding decision, 558
preparation of the tubes, 556
tube welding and expansion, 558
full-depth, full-strength expanding after welding, 556
methods of tube-to-tubesheet joint welding, 554
requirements for the welding and testing of tube to
tubesheet joints, 556
sequence of completion of expanded and welded
joints, 554
welding methods, 558–564
considerations in tube-to-tubesheet welding, 562
mock-ups for tube-to-tubesheet joint welding, 563
orbital welding, 558
tube-to-tubesheet joint configuration, 559
welding machine, 558
welding process, 564, 577
ARC voltage control (AVC) options, 567
both ends of the tubes welded with tubesheets, 577
brazing method for tube-to-tubesheet joints, 574
ductility of welded joint in feedwater heaters, 573
enclosed orbital tube-to-tubesheet welding heads
without filler wire, 567
heat treatment, 575, 577
inspection of tube-to-tubesheet joint weld, 574
internal bore welding, 569Index 675
675
internal bore welding behind the tubesheet, 570
leak testing of tube-to-tubesheet joint, 574
open tube-to-tubesheet welding heads with or without
filler wire, 567
orbital welding, 566
seal-welded and strength-welded joints, 571
specific requirements of tubes and weld
preparations, 568
testing of tube-to-tubesheet joints, 574
welding equipments, 567
welding of flush tubes, 569
welding of flush tubes with addition of filler wire, 569
welding of protruding tubes, 569
welding of recessed tubes, 569
welding of sections of unequal thickness, 571
welding of titanium tubes to tubesheet, 572
with tubes welded in one tubesheet and left free in the
other tubesheet, 577
U
Ultrasonic testing (UT), 418–439
advantages of ultrasonic inspection, 424
air coupled testing, 421
angle beam technique, 425
application of ultrasonic technique for thickness
measurement, 434–436
application of ultrasonic technique in pressure vessel
industry, 423
ASME code coverage, 423
ASTM standard for UT, 423
automated and on-line ultrasonic testing, 439
automated ultrasonic examinations, 437–438
components of a UT instrumentation, 425
corrosion mapping, 438
couplant, 426
quantitative wall thickness measurements, 436
ultrasonic coating thickness gages, 435
ultrasonic examination of nozzle welds, 436
ultrasonic plate tester, 434
ultrasonic thickness gauges, 434
different techniques of automated ultrasonic testing,
438–439
full matrix capture (FMC), 439
phased array ultrasonic testing, 439
rapid automated ultrasonic testing, 439
rapid ultrasonic gridding, 438
examination procedure, 424
pulse-echo technique, 424
fracture mechanics, 436–437
crack evaluation, 436
hydrogen damage detection, 438
limitations of ultrasonic inspection, 424
other developments in UT, 437
other methods, 439
phased array corrosion mapping, 438
phased array ultrasonic testing(PAUT), 429–434
industry applications, 432
merits of PAUT, 432
notable disadvantages of PAUT, 433
what do the images look like, 432–433
A-scan displays, 432
B-scan displays, 432
C-scan displays, 433
presentation, 421
probes, 425
surface preparation, 425
surface wave technique, 425
test method, 419–421
contact and immersion testing, 421
pulse echo inspection, 420
through transmission testing, 420
ultrasonic testing of welds, 426–429
acceptance criteria, 429
calibration, 429
defect location, 428
examination coverage, 429
plate thickness and angle of probe recommended, 428
reference blocks, 429
sensitivity and resolution, 429
UT calculators, 429
weld inspection (by Pulse-Echo and TOFD methods), 438
written procedure for UT, 423
ultrasonic examination procedure deficiencies, 423
V
Vendors responsibilities, 497
scope of supply, 497
Visual examination (VT), 385–391
developments in visual examination optical instruments,
389–391
borescopes, 389
combining computers and visual inspection, 391
high-speed video, 391
remote visual inspection, 389
video image scopes, 391
video microscopes, 391
direct vision examination, 386
importance of visual inspection, 385
merits of visual examination, 387
NDT of raw materials, 388
parameters that impact inspection performance, 386
principle of VT, 386
reference document, 387
remote visual examination, 386
translucent visual examination, 386
visual examination during various stages of fabrication
by welding, 388–389
visual examination after welding, 389
visual examination before welding, 389
visual examination during welding, 389
visual examination equipment, 388
visual examination: prerequisites, 387
VT technique applications, 388
written procedure, 387
W
Welding design 364–374
parameters affecting welding quality, 364
procedure qualification record, PQR, 369676 Index
676
scheme of symbols for welding, 366
standard for welding and welding design, 366–369
A numbers, 369
ASME code section IX, 366
filler metals, 368
F numbers, 369
NDT of weldment, 368
P numbers, 368
selection of consumables, 368
variables affecting welding quality, 366
weld defects and inspection of weld quality, 370–374
approach to weld defect acceptance levels, 374
causes of discontinuities, 371
faults in fusion welds in constructional steels, 371
general types of defects and their significance, 371
weld defects (discontinuities), 370
welder’s performance qualification, 369
welding positions and qualifications, 370
welding procedure specification, 369
welding qualitydesign, 365
welding-related failures, 178
Written procedure, 383, 387, 392, 399, 406, 423, 453,
474
Z
Zirconium, 281–284
alloy classification, 281
applications, 282
corrosion resistance, 282–283
hydrogen embrittlement of zirconium alloys, 283
resistance to chemicals, 282
fabrication, 283
limitations of zirconium, 282
product forms, 281
properties and metallurgy, 281
welding method, 283–284
filler metals, 284
surface cleaning, 284
weld metal shielding, 283
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