كتاب التصميم الميكانيكي - Mechanical Design

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أخوانى فى الله
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Mechanical Design
Antonino Risitano

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Contents
Preface vii
Symbols ix
Section I? Setting?Project?Methodology
Chapter 1 Approaches.to.Designing.and.Developing.the.Product 3
1.1. Introduction 3
1.2. Approaches.to.Designing.and.Developing.the.Product 3
1.3. The.Main.Activity.in.Designing.a.Product 5
1.4. Methodological.Evolution.in.Designing.the.Product .7
1.5. Concurrent.Engineering .7
1.6. Life.Cycle.Design .9
1.7. Design.for.X . 10
1.7.1. Property-Objective.of.Design.for.X 11
1.8. Correlating.and.Choosing.Design.Tools . 11
1.9. Other.Tools.and.Design.Approaches 12
1.9.1. Knowledge-Based.Engineering . 12
1.9.2. Total.Quality.Management 12
1.9.3. Reverse.Engineering . 12
Chapter 2 Mechanical.Design.and.Environmental.Requirements . 15
2.1. Introduction 15
2.2. Design.and.Environmental.Requirements 15
2.3. Design.for.Environment . 16
2.4. Optimum.Environmental.Performance 17
2.5. . Implementing.Design.for.Environment.and.General.Guidelines . 17
2.6. Product.Life.Cycle.and.Environmental.Impact 18
2.7. Environmental.Impact.of.the.Product 19
2.8. Modeling.the.Life.Cycle .20
2.9. Life.Cycle.Assessment 23
2.9.1. Methodological.Premises,.Property,.and.Structure 23
2.9.2. Eco-Indicators.to.Quantify.Environmental.Impact 25
2.10. Introducing.Environmental.Factors.in.the.Design.Process 26
2.11. Integrating.Life.Cycle.and.Design .27
2.11.1. The.Role.of.Life.Cycle.Design 29
2.12. . Integrating.Environmental.Aspects.with.Product.Development 29
2.13. Environmental.Strategies.for.Product.Planning .30
2.13.1. Useful.Life.Extension.Strategies . 32
2.13.2. Reclamation.Strategies.at.End.of.Useful.Life . 32
2.14. Methodological.Setup.and.Design.Tools 35
2.15. . The.Role.of.Design.for.X.in.Designing.for.Environmental.Requisites 36
2.15.1. Design.for.X.for.Environmental.Strategies .39vi Contents
2.15.2. Design.for.X.Setup.in.Product.Development 39
2.16. Tools.for.Integrated.Design:.Overview 40
Section II? The?Properties?of?Design?Materials
Chapter 3 Materials.for.Mechanical.Design 45
3.1. Introduction 45
3.2. Metallic.Materials.and.Alloys 45
3.3. Solid.State.and.Structure.of.Metals 46
3.3.1. Solidifcation . 47
3.3.2. Lattice.Defects 47
3.4. Iron–Carbon.Alloys 48
3.4.1. Cast.Irons 48
3.4.1.1. In?uence.of.Common.and.Special.Elements.on.Cast.Irons.49
3.4.1.2. Gray.Cast.Iron.Classifcation .50
3.4.1.3. Special.Cast.Irons.Classifcation . 51
3.4.1.4. Spheroidal.Cast.Irons.Classifcation 51
3.4.1.5. Cast.Iron.Alloys.Classifcation 51
3.4.1.6. Malleable.Cast.Irons.Classifcation . 51
3.4.2. Steels . 52
3.4.2.1. Manganese.Steels 53
3.4.2.2. Chromium.Steels . 53
3.4.2.3. Nickel.Steels 54
3.4.2.4. Tungsten.Steels 54
3.4.2.5. Molybdenum.Steels .54
3.4.2.6. Silicon.Steels .54
3.4.2.7. Less.Common.Carbon.Steel.Alloys 55
3.4.2.8. Special.Stainless.Corrosion.and.Heat-Resistant.Steels . 55
3.5. Non-Ferrous.Metals.and.Their.Alloys .56
3.5.1. Copper .56
3.5.2. Copper–Tin.Binary.Alloys.(Cu-Sn.Bronzes) 56
3.5.3. Copper–Tin–Zinc.Alloys .56
3.5.4. Copper–Tin–Zinc–Nickel.Alloys 56
3.5.5. Low.Lead.Copper.Alloys 57
3.5.6. Copper–Lead–Tin.Alloys 57
3.5.7. High.Lead.Bronzes.(Cu–Sn–Zn–Pb) 57
3.5.8. Aluminum.Bronzes . 58
3.5.9. Industrial.Bronze .59
3.5.10. High.Resistance.Brass . 59
3.5.11. Foundry.Brass . 59
3.5.12. Pressure.Die-Casting.Zinc.Alloys .60
3.5.13. High.Aluminum.Zinc.Alloys 60
3.5.14. Lead.Alloys .60
3.5.15. Alloys.for.Cables .60
3.5.15.1. Aluminum 61
3.5.15.2. Magnesium 61
3.5.15.3. Titanium . 61
3.5.15.4. Nickel . 62Contents vii
3.5.15.5. Chromium 62
3.5.15.6. Vanadium . 62
3.5.15.7. Cobalt . 62
3.5.15.8. Tungsten.(Wolfram) . 62
3.5.15.9. Molybdenum 63
3.6. An.Outline.of.Polymeric.Materials 63
3.6.1. Polymer.Classifcation .63
3.6.1.1. Origin-Based.Classifcation .63
3.6.1.2. Classifcation.Related.to.Temperature.Effects .64
3.6.1.3. Classifcation.According.to.Physical.Characteristics 64
3.6.2. Synthetic.Resins 64
3.6.2.1. Macromolecule.Structure 64
3.6.2.2. Production 64
3.6.3. Main.Properties.of.Polymeric.Materials .65
3.6.3.1. Mechanical.Properties .65
3.6.3.2. Thermal.Properties 65
3.6.4. Commonly.Used.Polymers 65
3.6.4.1. Cellulose.Resins .65
3.6.4.2. Styrene.Resins .66
3.6.4.3. Acrylic.Resins 66
3.6.4.4. Polyamide.Resins . 67
3.6.4.5. Fluorinated.Resins . 67
3.6.4.6. Phenolic.Resins 68
3.6.4.7. Amino.Resins 68
3.6.4.8. Allyl.Resins .68
3.6.4.9. Polyester.Resins .68
3.6.4.10. Epoxy.Resins .68
3.6.4.11. Polyurethanes .69
3.6.4.12. Silicones .69
3.7. Outline.of.Composites 69
3.7.1. Matrices .70
3.7.2. Polyester.Matrices . 71
3.7.3. Epoxy.Matrices . 71
3.7.4. Phenolic.Matrices 71
3.7.5. Silicone.Matrices . 71
3.7.6. Fibrous.Stiffening 71
3.7.7. Glass.Fibers . 71
3.7.8. Carbon.Fibers 72
3.7.9. Boron.Fibers 73
3.7.10. Aramid.Organic.Fibers .73
3.7.11. Admissible.Load.and.Elasticity.Modulus .73
3.7.12. Multilayer.Laminates 73
3.8. Outline.of.Ceramic.Materials . 74
Chapter 4 Characterization.of.Metals 77
4.1. Introduction 77
4.2. Tensile.Stress.Tests . 78
4.3. Static.Elastoplastic.Characterization 79
4.4. Plastic.Constituent.Link .83
4.5. Notes.about.Mechanical.Characterization.Tests 86viii Contents
4.5.1. Compression.Tests .86
4.5.2. Curvature.Tests .86
4.5.3. Shearing.Tests .88
4.5.4. Torsion.Tests 88
4.5.5. Hardness.Tests .88
4.5.6. Brinell.Hardness/Number .88
4.5.7. Diamond.Pyramid.Hardness.Number.(Vickers) .90
4.5.8. Rockwell.Hardness 91
4.5.9. Knoop.Hardness 92
4.5.10. Resilience.Tests .92
4.5.11. Standard.Bars 93
4.5.12. Other.Test.Bars 93
4.6. Notes.about.Technological.Characterization.Tests 94
4.6.1. Drawing.Tests 95
4.6.2. Erichsen.Drawing.Test 95
4.6.3. Erichsen.Drawing.Test.Modifed.(UNI.4693) .96
4.6.4. Socket.Drawing.Test.(UNI.6124) 96
4.6.5. Pomp.Drawing.Test .96
4.6.6. Bending.Test 97
4.6.7. Template.Bending 97
4.6.8. Mandrel.Bearing.Bending .98
4.6.9. Percentage.Elongation.and.the.Tetmajer.Coeffcient 98
4.6.10. Forging.Tests .100
4.6.11. Stretch.Tests 100
4.6.12. Heading.Test 100
4.7. Metallurgic.Tests 101
4.8. Tube.Tests . 102
4.8.1. Enlargement.Tests . 102
4.8.2. Beading.Test.(Flanging.Test) 103
4.8.3. Compression.Test 104
4.8.4. Tensile.Stress.Test . 104
4.9. Tests.on.Steel.Wires . 104
4.10. Final.Indications . 105
Chapter 5 Stress.Conditions . 107
5.1. Introduction 107
5.2. Mechanical.Behavior.of.Materials . 107
5.3. Conditions.of.Mechanical.Stress 108
5.3.1. Simple.Tensile.Stress . 108
5.3.2. Simple.Compression 112
5.3.3. Simple.Bending.of.Beams . 114
5.3.4. Simple.Torsion . 116
5.3.5. Simple.Shearing 118
5.3.6. Buckling.of.Column.Bars 121
Chapter 6 Fatigue.of.Materials 127
6.1. General.Concepts . 127
6.2. Load.Characteristics . 129
6.3. Fatigue.Diagrams . 131Contents ix
6.4. Thermography.to.Defne.Fatigue.Behavior 133
6.5. Determining.the.Fatigue.Curve 136
6.6. . Fatigue.Limit.by.Thermal.Surface.Analysis.of.Specimen.in.Mono.Axial.
Traction.Test .138
6.7. Residual.Resistance.of.a.Mechanical.Component 140
6.8. The.Factors.In?uencing.Fatigue . 143
6.9. Safety.Factor . 145
6.10. Stress.Concentration.Factor 147
6.11. Fatigue.Resistance.of.Welded.Machine.Components 153
6.12. Internal.Material.Damping . 155
6.13. Test.Machines . 157
6.14. Conclusions.about.Designing.a.Mechanical.Component . 158
Chapter 7 Optimal.Materials.Selection.in.Mechanical.Design . 161
7.1. Introduction 161
7.2. Design.Requirements.and.Correlation.with.Materials . 161
7.3. Primary.Constraint.Selection . 164
7.4. Approaches.to.the.Best.Choice.of.Materials 164
7.5. Tools.for.Selection.of.Properties 165
7.5.1. Standard.and.Weighted.Properties.Method 165
7.5.2. Method.of.Limits.and.Objectives.on.Properties . 168
7.6. Integrated.Selection.Tools 170
7.6.1. Analytical.Formulation . 170
7.6.2. Graphic.Selection 173
7.6.3. Application 175
7.6.4. Research.Development 176
Section III? Design?of?Mechanical?Components?and?Systems
Chapter 8 Failure.Theories 181
8.1. Material.Strength.and.Design . 181
8.2. Stresses.in.a.Three-Dimensional.Object 181
8.3. Main.Stresses 184
8.4. Mohr’s.Circles 185
8.4.1. Simple.Tensile.Compression.Stress.Compression.(Figure.8.6) . 186
8.4.2. Bending.and.Shearing.(Figure.8.7) . 186
8.4.3. Pure.Torsion.(Figure.8.8) 186
8.5. Failure.Hypothesis 186
8.5.1. Maximum.Linear.Strain.Hypothesis . 188
8.5.2. Maximum.Tangential.Stress.Hypothesis 188
8.5.3. Deformation.Energy.(Beltrami’s).Hypothesis . 191
8.5.4. Distortion.Energy.(Von.Mises’s).Hypothesis 192
8.6. Failure.Hypotheses:.A.Comparison . 195
Chapter 9 Hertz.Theory . 197
9.1. Introduction 197
9.1.1. Sphere.versus.Sphere.Contact .208x Contents
9.1.2. Cylinder.versus.Cylinder.Contact .208
9.2. Application.to.Rolling.Contact.Bearings .209
9.3. Approach 210
9.4. Equivalent.Ideal.Stress.in.Hertzian.Contact . 212
9.5. Loads.on.the.Ball.Bearings 213
Chapter 10 Lubrication 217
10.1. Introduction 217
10.2. Prismatic.Pair.of.Infnite.and.Finite.Length 220
10.3. Calculation.of.Michell.Thrust.Bearings .223
10.4. . Journal-Bearing.Pair:.Setting.Reynolds’.Equation.and.Clearance.Height 226
10.5. Infnite.Length.Journal-Bearing.Pair .227
10.6. Journal-Bearing.Pair.of.Finite.Length:.Schiebel’s.Formulae . 232
10.7. . Journal-Bearing.with.Finite.Length:.Bosch’s.Approximate.Computation .236
10.8. Journal-Narrow.Bearing.Pair:.Ocvirk’s.Hypothesis 237
10.9. . Lubricated.Journal.with.Finite/Infnite.Length:.Raimondi–Boyd.
Calculation 238
10.10. Notes.on.Lubricants 246
Chapter 11 Shafts.and.Bearings 249
11.1. Shafts 249
11.2. Shaft.Measuring .249
11.2.1. Two-Bearing.Shafts.(Isostatic) 250
11.2.2. Shafts.with.More.than.Two.Bearings.(Hyperstatic) 252
11.3. . Deformation.Limits.and.Determination.of.Elastic.De?ections . 253
11.3.1. Assessment.of.Shaft.Elasticity 253
11.4. Rolling-Contact.Bearings.(Anti-Friction.Bearings) . 257
11.4.1. Classifcation.of.Bearings . 257
11.4.2. Classifcation.by.Rolling.Body.Shape . 257
11.4.3. Classifcation.by.Assembly.Method 257
11.4.4. Classifcation.by.Thrust.Direction 257
11.5. General.Assembly.Rules 259
11.6. Bearing.Adjustment 259
11.7. Assembly.Models .260
11.8. Friction.Bearings 266
Chapter 12 Splined.Couplings,.Splines.and.Keys 271
12.1. Splined.Couplings 271
12.2. Splines.and.Tongues . 273
12.3. Transverse.Splines 280
12.4. Spur.Gears 284
Chapter 13 Springs .287
13.1. Introduction 287
13.2. Spring.Computation 288
13.3. Bending.Springs . 291
13.3.1. Leaf.Springs 296Contents xi
13.3.2. Leaf.Springs.with.Spring.Shackles .297
13.3.3. Characteristics.of.Leaf.Spring.Systems 303
13.3.4. Coil.Springs .304
13.3.5. Cylindrical.Helical.Springs .309
13.3.6. Conical.Disc.Springs . 311
13.3.7. Variable.Thickness.Disc.Springs 313
13.3.8. Diaphragm.Spring . 316
13.4. Torsion.Springs . 319
13.4.1. Torsion.Bars 321
13.4.2. Cylindrical.Helix.Torsion.Springs 322
13.4.3. Conical.Helix.Torsion.Springs 325
13.5. Compression.Springs 329
13.6. Resonant.Spring.Calculations 333
Chapter 14 Flexible.Machine.Elements . 339
14.1. Introduction 339
14.2. Belts 339
14.3. Sizing.Belts .340
14.4. Timing.Belts . 342
14.5. Precautions.for.Testing.Durability . 343
Section iV? Design?of?Components?and?Mechanical?Systems
Chapter 15 Spur.Gears . 347
15.1. Introduction 347
15.2. Introductory.Ideas.and.Preliminary.Defnitions 347
15.3. Defnitions.and.Nomenclature 347
15.4. Gear.Sizing . 352
15.5. Cut.and.Operating.Conditions 353
15.5.1. Ordinary.Sizing . 354
15.6. Involute.Equation 354
15.7. Determining.Tooth.Thickness 355
15.8. Tooth.Base.Fillets . 359
15.9. Euler–Savary.Theorem . 361
15.10. Interference.and.Schiebel’s.Fillet . 362
15.11. Meshing 365
15.12. Expressing.Contact.Segment.and.Action.Arc 368
15.13. Condition.of.Non-Interference . 370
15.14. . Reduction.of.the.Contact.Line’s.Usable.Segment.Due.to.Interference 373
15.15. Specifc.Creep . 378
15.16. Modifcated.Gears 381
15.17. German.Norms.on.Modifcated.Gearing . 391
15.18. Loads.When.Engaging.Gears . 393
15.19. Verifcation.Calculations.for.Gear.Resistance .394
15.19.1.Calculating.Tooth.Bending .394
15.19.2.Teeth.Wear.Calculation .399
15.20. . Notes.on.the.“American”.Norms.for.Calculating.Toothing.(Agma) 402xii Contents
15.20.1.Bending.Test 402
15.20.2.Wear.Verifcation 403
15.20.3.Corrective.Coeffcients.for.Fatigue .403
15.21. Design.Phases.for.a.Gearing 405
Chapter 16 Press.and.Shrink.Fits .407
16.1. Introduction 407
16.2. Fixing.Flywheel.Components 407
16.3. Forced.Hub-Shaft.Shrinking 414
16.4. . The.Relationship.between.Interference.and.Thermal.Variation 421
Chapter 17 Pressure.Tubes . 423
17.1. Introduction 423
17.2. Sizing.and.Verifying.Pipe.Strength 423
17.3. Strength.Verifcation.for.Pressurized.Vessels 426
17.4. Some.Oil.Pipe.Considerations 427
17.4. Instability.in.Externally.Pressed.Pipes 428
17.5. Calculations.for.Flange.Bolts . 431
17.6. Fixed.Flange.Calculations 432
17.7. Free.Flange.Calculation . 434
17.8. Flange.Bolts 435
17.9. Notes.on.Hot.Metal.Creep 436
17.9.1. Creep.Tests 437
17.9.2. Microstructural.Aspects.of.the.Deformation.Phases 440
17.9.3. Physical.Interpretation.of.Creep 441
17.10. Brief.Notes.on.Testing.Creep .442
Chapter 18 Welded.Joints 443
18.1. Introduction 443
18.2. Welding.Defects .444
18.3. Weld.Tests .446
18.4. Weld.Strength .447
18.5. Static.Calculation .447
18.6. Static.Calculation.According.to.Norm.CNR-UNI.10011 .448
18.7. . Static.Calculation—Head.and.Complete.Penetration.Weld .448
18.8. Static.Calculation—Welds.with.Corner.Beads 449
18.9. Loads.on.the.Bead 451
18.10. Fatigue.Calculation . 453
18.11. Fatigue.Calculation.According.to.Norm.CNR-UNI.10011 454
18.11.1.Fatigue.Resistance—?N Curves.with.?? Stress.(Figure.18.17) . 454
18.11.2.Fatigue.Resistance—?N Curves.with ?? Stress.(Figure.18.18) 455
18.11.3 Fatigue.Resistance—In?uence.of.Thickness.on.Acceptable.? . 455
18.12. Spot.Welding 456
18.12.1.Static.Calculation 457
18.12.2.Fatigue.Calculation . 458
18.13. Riveted.Joint . 459Contents xiii
Chapter 19 Couplings 467
19.1. Preliminary.Notions.and.Types.of.Joints .467
19.2. Rigid.Joints .468
19.2.1. Box.Coupling/Sleeve.Joint 468
19.2.2. Cylindrical.Joints 469
19.2.3. Disc.and.Flange.Couplings . 471
19.3. Fixed.Semi.Elastic.and.Elastic.Joints . 475
19.4. Peg.Joints 478
19.5. Spring.Joints .480
19.5.1. Bibby.Joint .480
19.5.2. Voith.Maurer.Joint .487
19.5.3. Forst.Joint 488
19.6. Mobile.Joints 490
19.6.1. Cardan.(Universal).Joint . 491
19.6.2. Oldham.Joint .496
Chapter 20 Clutches . 501
20.1. Introduction 501
20.2. Friction.Clutches . 501
20.3. Flat.Plate.Clutches 506
20.4. Cone.and.Double.Cone.Clutches 510
20.5. Radial.Block.Clutches 512
20.6. Surplus.Clutches . 517
20.6.1. Cylindrical.Rollers 517
20.6.2. Non-Cylindrical.Rollers,.Blocked . 518
20.7. Safety.Clutches . 520
20.8. Centrifugal.Clutches . 521
Chapter 21 Brakes 529
21.1. Introductory.Concepts 529
21.2. Disc.Brakes . 530
21.3. Performance.and.Dimension.Analyses 534
21.4. Drum.Brakes 545
21.4.1. Calculations.and.Sizing .548
21.5. Ribbon.Brakes 557
21.6. Differential.Ribbon.Brakes 560
Chapter 22 Case.Study:.Design.of.a.Differential . 563
22.1. Introduction 563
22.2. Review.for.the.Gears.Project 564
22.3. Dimensioning.of.the.Bevel.Gears .566
22.3.1. Introduction .566
22.3.2. Calculation.of.the.Teeth.Number 567
22.3.3. Bending.Calculations 568
22.3.4. Wear.Calculation .568
22.3.5. Dynamic.Verifcation 569
22.3.6. Bending.Verifcation.of.the.Crown .569
22.3.7. Dynamic.Rim.Verifcation 569xiv Contents
22.4. Project.of.Planetary.Reducer 570
22.4.1. Introduction . 570
22.4.2. Teeth.Number.Calculation 570
22.4.3. Bending.Calculation 571
22.4.4. Wear.Calculation . 572
22.4.5. Dynamic.Verifcation 572
22.5. Differential.Gear.Dimensions 573
22.5.1. Calculation.of.the.Number.of.Teeth 573
22.5.2. Bending.Calculation 574
22.5.3. Wear.Calculation . 575
22.5.4. Dynamic.Verifcation 575
22.6. Measurement.of.Time.Gearing 575
22.6.1. Introduction . 575
22.6.2. Bending.Calculation 582
22.6.3. Wear.Verifcation 582
22.6.4. Bending.and.Wear.Verifcation.of.the.External.Rim 583
22.7. . Dimensioning.of.the.Shaft.Pinion.and.Choice.of.the.Bearings .583
22.7.1. Calculating.Splined.Profle . 583
22.7.2. Calculation.of.Reaction.Forces . 585
22.7.3. Calculation.of.the.Shaft . 588
22.7.4. De?ection.Verifcation 590
22.7.5. Choice.of.Bearings 591
22.8. Choice.of.the.Differential.Bearings.Box 593
22.9. Dimensioning.of.the.Pins .596
22.9.1. Pins.of.the.Epicyclic.Speed.Reducer .596
22.9.2. Maximum.De?ection 597
22.9.3. Specifc.Pressure .597
22.9.4. Shear.and.Bending 597
22.9.5. Pins.of.the.Satellite.Differential 598
22.9.6. Dimensioning.at.De?ection .599
22.9.7. Specifc.Pressure.Verifcation .599
22.9.8. Verifcation.at.Shear.and.Bending .599
22.10. Dimensioning.of.the.Box.Screws .600
22.11. Dimensioning.of.the.Semi-Shaft 601
Appendix .606
Project.Data.Specifcation 606
Problems 617
References.

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