كتاب Mechanical Alloying and Milling

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اخوانى واحبتى فى الله معى اليوم كتاب
Mechanical Alloying
and Milling

Table of Contents
Foreword iii
Preface v
Acknowledgements vii
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Motivation 1
1.2. Advanced Materials 2
1.3. Thermodynamic Stability 2
1.4. Basis of Nonequilibrium Processing5
1.5. Some Nonequilibrium ProcessingMethods 7
1.5.1. Rapid Solidification Processing7
1.5.2. MechanicalAlloying7
1.5.3. Plasma Processing8
1.5.4. Vapor Deposition 8
1.5.5. Spray Forming8
1.6. Outline of the Book 8
References 9
2. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 11
2.1. Introduction 11
2.2. Historical Background 11
2.3. Development of High-Energy Ball Milling 12
2.4. Potential of MechanicalAlloying14
2.5. Potential Resources of Mechanical AlloyingLiter ature 14
References 173. NOMENCLATURE 21
3.1. Introduction 21
3.2. MechanicalAlloying2 1
3.3. Mechanical Milling/Disordering 22
3.4. ReactionMilling2 2
3.5. Cryomilling2 3
3.6. Rod Milling2 3
3.7. Mechanically Activated Annealing2 4
3.8. Double Mechanical Alloying2 4
3.9. Mechanically Activated Self-propagating High-temperature
Synthesis 24
3.10. Oxidation–Attrition Milling–Reduction 25
3.11. Mechanochemical Processing2 6
3.12. Other Methods 26
3.12.1. Repeated ColdRolling2 7
3.12.2. Multilayer Amorphization 28
3.12.3. Severe Plastic Deformation 29
3.12.4. Accumulative Roll Bonding3 0
3.13. Acronyms Used in the Literature 32
References 33
4. EQUIPMENT FOR MECHANICAL ALLOYING 35
4.1. Introduction 35
4.2. Raw Materials 36
4.3. Types of Mills 37
4.3.1. Spex Shaker Mills 37
4.3.2. Planetary Ball Mills 39
4.3.3. Attritor Mills 41
4.3.4. Commercial Mills 44
4.3.5. New Designs 47
4.4. Selection of GrindingMed ium 55
References 57
5. PROCESS VARIABLES IN MILLING 59
5.1. Introduction 59
5.2. Type of Mill 60
5.3. MillingContainer 60
5.4. MillingEnerg y/Speed 61
5.5. MillingTime 64
5.6. GrindingMed ium 64
5.7. Ball-to-Powder Weight Ratio 66
5.8. Extent of Fillingthe Vial 68
5.9. MillingAtmosphere 69
5.10. Process Control Agents 70
5.10.1. Nature of PCAs 70
5.10.2. Quantity of 5.10.3. Constitution of the Milled Powder 74
5.10.4. Choice of PCA 75
5.11. Temperature ofMilling76
References 78
6. MECHANISM OF ALLOYING 83
6.1. Introduction 83
6.2. Ball-Powder-Ball Collisions 83
6.3. Different Stages of Processing 84
6.3.1. Early Stage of Processing 85
6.3.2. Intermediate Stage of Processing 85
6.3.3. Final Stage of Processing 87
6.4. Evolution of Particle Size 87
6.5. Ductile-Ductile Components 89
6.6. Ductile-Brittle Components 91
6.7. Brittle-Brittle Components 92
References 94
7. CHARACTERIZATION OF POWDERS 95
7.1. Introduction 95
7.2. Size and Shape 96
7.3. Surface Area 99
7.4. Phase Constitution 102
7.4.1. Crystalline Phases 102
7.4.2. Quasi-crystalline Phases 104
7.4.3. Amorphous Phases 105
7.5. Microstructural Features 107
7.6. Crystallite Size and Lattice Strain 110
7.7. Transformation Behavior 113
7.8. Grain Growth Studies 117
References 118
8. TEMPERATURE RISE DURING MILLING 121
8.1. Introduction 121
8.2. Types of Temperature Effects 122
8.3. Methods to Evaluate Temperature Rise 123
8.3.1. Methodology Behind the Theoretical Models 123
8.3.2. Theoretical Models 124
8.3.3. Observations Based on Microstructural/Phase
Transformations 127
8.3.4. Experimental Observations 128
8.4. Temperature of the Balls 133
8.5. Methods to Minimize Temperature Rise 135
References 1369. SOLID SOLUBILITY EXTENSIONS 139
9.1. Introduction 139
9.2. Hume-Rothery Rules for Solid Solution Formation 139
9.3. Formation of Supersaturated Solid Solutions 140
9.4. Measurement of Solid Solubility Limits 142
9.5. Difficulties in Solid Solubility Determination 145
9.6. Effect of Process Variables 156
9.6.1. MillingTemperat ure 156
9.6.2. Process Control Agent 158
9.6.3. StartingCom position of the Powder Blend 159
9.7. Mechanisms of Solid Solubility Extension 160
9.8. Solid Solubility Plots 164
9.9. Comparison between Mechanical Alloyingand Rapid
Solidification Processing16 9
References 173
10. SYNTHESIS OF INTERMETALLICS 183
10.1. Introduction 183
10.2. Quasi-crystalline Phases 185
10.2.1. General Features 187
10.2.2. Effect of Process Variables 189
10.3. Crystalline Intermediate Phases 190
10.3.1. Metastable Crystalline Intermediate Phases 191
10.3.2. High-Pressure Phases 193
10.3.3. Equilibrium Crystalline Phases 203
10.4. Role of Hydrogen as a Temporary Alloying Element 207
10.5. Combustion Reactions duringMA 209
10.6. Cyclic Phase Transformations 212
10.7. Formation of Ordered Intermetallics 216
10.8. Transformation Behavior of Metastable Intermetallic Phases 217
10.9. Refractory Compounds 220
References 227
11. DISORDERING OF INTERMETALLICS 243
11.1. Introduction 243
11.2. Methodology 244
11.3. Types of Defects Generated duringDisorderi ngand
Thermodynamic Stability 245
11.3.1. Antisite Disorder 246
11.3.2. Triple-Defect Disorder 247
11.3.3. Quadruple-Defect Disorder 248
11.3.4. Redistribution of Interstitials 249
11.4. Theoretical Background 251
11.5. Phase Selection 25911.6. ReorderingKinet ics 263
References 264
12. SOLID-STATE AMORPHIZATION 269
12.1. Introduction 269
12.2. Amorphous Phases by MA/MM 270
12.3. Difference between Amorphous Phase Formation by MA
and MM 271
12.4. Effect of Process Variables 291
12.4.1. MillingEnerg y 292
12.4.2. MillingTemperat ure 293
12.4.3. Powder Contamination 294
12.5. Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Amorphous Phase
Formation 295
12.6. Mechanisms and Models for Amorphization 298
12.7. Crystallization Behavior of Amorphous Alloys 304
12.8. Mechanical Crystallization 306
12.9. Bulk Amorphous Alloys 307
12.10. Theoretical Predictions of Amorphous-Phase-Forming
Range 312
12.11. Comparison between MA and RSP 315
References 320
13. NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS 333
13.1. Introduction 333
13.2. Classification and Characteristics of Nanostructured
Materials 333
13.3. Synthesis of Nanostructured Materials 335
13.4. Mechanism of Formation of Nanostructures 337
13.5. Minimal Grain Size 338
13.5.1. Correlation with Material Properties 340
13.5.2. Process Variables 342
13.5.3. Theoretical Estimates 346
13.6. Nanocomposites 346
13.7. Properties of Nanocrystalline Materials 349
13.7.1. Hardness and Strength 349
13.7.2. Ductility 352
13.7.3. Enhanced Sinterability 353
13.7.4. Thermal Stability 353
References 354
14. MECHANOCHEMICAL PROCESSING 359
14.1. Introduction 359
14.2. Thermodynamic Aspects 36014.3. Process Parameters 369
14.3.1. MillingTemp erature 369
14.3.2. Ball-to-Powder Weight Ratio 370
14.3.3. Process Control Agent 371
14.3.4. Relative Proportion of the Reactants 371
14.3.5. GrindingBall Diameter 372
14.4. Phase Formation 372
14.5. Combustion Reaction 374
14.6. Reaction Mechanisms 375
14.6.1. Thermal Theories 375
14.6.2. Reactions Induced by Shear 376
14.6.3. Theory of Surface Active States 376
14.7. Mechanosynthesis of Ceramics and Nanocomposites 377
References 379
15. POWDER CONTAMINATION 385
15.1. Introduction 385
15.2. Sources of Contamination 386
15.2.1. StartingPowd ers 387
15.2.2. MillingAtmo sphere 392
15.2.3. MillingEqui pment 393
15.3. Elimination/Minimization of Contamination 395
15.3.1. MillingEqui pment 396
15.3.2. MillingAtmo sphere 398
15.3.3. Process Control Agent 400
References 402
16. MODELING STUDIES AND MILLING MAPS 405
16.1. Introduction 405
16.2. Process Variables 405
16.3. Early ModelingAttemp ts 406
16.4. Types of Modeling40 7
16.4.1. Local Modeling40 7
16.4.2. GlobalModeling41 1
16.5. MillingMaps 413
References 416
17. APPLICATIONS 419
17.1. Introduction 419
17.2. Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Materials 420
17.2.1. ODS Nickel-Based Alloys 421
17.2.2. ODS Iron-Based Alloys 424
17.2.3. ODS Aluminum-Based Alloys 42517.3. Magnesium-Based Alloys 429
17.3.1. SupercorrodingAll oys 429
17.3.2. Hydrogen Storage Materials 429
17.4. Other Applications 434
17.4.1. Spray Coatings 434
17.4.2. Thermoelectric Power Generator Materials 435
17.4.3. Waste Utilization 436
17.4.4. Metal Extraction 438
17.4.5. Processingof Polymers 439
17.4.6. Room Temperature Solders 441
17.4.7. Biomaterials 441
17.4.8. Bearings 442
17.4.9. Miscellaneous Applications 443
17.5. ConcludingRem arks 443
References 444
18. SAFETY HAZARDS 447
18.1. Introduction 447
18.2. Hazards Related to Mechanical AlloyingPro cesses 448
18.2.1. Heat Evolution 448
18.2.2. Gas Evolution 449
18.2.3. Explosions 449
18.3. Handlingof Mechanically Alloyed Powders 449
18.4. Accident Avoidance 450
References 451
19. CONCLUDING REMARKS 453
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