إخواني في الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Guidelines for Design of Wind Turbines ,second edition أتمنى أن تستفيدوا منه ويتناول الموضوعات الآتية::
1. WIND TURBINE CONCEPTS.........1
1.1 INTRODUCTION.................................1
1.2 CONCEPTUAL ASPECTS.....................1
1.2.1 Vertical axis turbines....................2
1.2.2 Horizontal axis turbines................2
1.2.3 Number of rotor blades.................3
1.2.4 Power control aspects...................3
1.3 ECONOMICAL ASPECTS.....................5
1.4 POWER PRODUCTION........................5
1.4.1 Power curve..................................6
1.4.2 Annual energy production............7
1.5 CONFIGURATIONS AND SIZES ...........7
1.6 FUTURE CONCEPTS ...........................8
REFERENCES...........................................9
2. SAFETY AND RELIABILITY........10
2.1 SAFETY PHILOSOPHY......................10
2.2 SYSTEM SAFETY AND
OPERATIONAL RELIABILITY............11
2.2.1 Control system............................12
2.2.2 Protection system........................13
2.2.3 Brake system..............................14
2.2.4 Failure mode and effects
analysis.......................................15
2.2.5 Fault tree analysis.......................16
2.3 STRUCTURAL SAFETY.....................18
2.3.1 Limit states.................................18
2.3.2 Failure probability and other
measures of structural reliability.18
2.3.3 Structural reliability methods.....19
2.3.4 Code format, characteristic
values, and partial safety factors.19
2.3.5 Code calibration..........................20
2.3.6 Example – axially loaded
steel tower...................................22
2.3.7 Example – fatigue of FRP
blade root in bending..................24
2.3.8 Tests and calculations for
verification..................................26
2.3.9 Inspection and
inspection intervals.....................26
2.4 MECHANICAL SAFETY ....................27
2.5 LABOUR SAFETY ............................28
2.5.1 Transportation, installation
and commissioning.....................28
2.5.2 Normal operation........................29
2.5.3 Service, maintenance and repair.29
2.6 CODES AND STANDARDS ................30
REFERENCES.........................................30
3. EXTERNAL CONDITIONS............32
3.1 WIND CONDITIONS .........................32
3.1.1 10-minute mean wind speed.......32
3.1.2 Standard deviation of
wind speed..................................34
3.1.3 Turbulence intensity...................36
3.1.4 Lateral and vertical turbulence...37
3.1.5 Stochastic turbulence models.....37
3.1.6 Wind shear..................................40
3.1.7 Wind direction............................42
3.1.8 Transient wind conditions..........43
3.1.9 Extreme winds – gusts................43
3.1.10 Site assessment...........................46
3.2 OTHER EXTERNAL CONDITIONS......48
3.2.1 Temperatures..............................48
3.2.2 Density of air..............................49
3.2.3 Humidity.....................................50
3.2.4 Radiation and ultraviolet light....50
3.2.5 Ice...............................................50
3.2.6 Rain, snow and hail....................50
3.2.7 Atmospheric corrosion
and abrasion................................51
3.2.8 Earthquake..................................51
3.2.9 Lightning....................................53
REFERENCES.........................................53
4. LOADS...............................................55
4.1 LOAD CASES...................................55
4.1.1 Design situations........................55
4.1.2 Wind events................................55
4.1.3 Design load cases.......................55
4.2 LOAD TYPES ...................................58
4.2.1 Inertia and gravity loads.............58
4.2.2 Aerodynamic loads.....................59
4.2.3 Functional loads..........................60
4.2.4 Other loads..................................60
4.3 AEROELASTIC LOAD
CALCULATIONS ..............................60
4.3.1 Model elements...........................61
4.3.2 Aeroelastic models for load
prediction....................................70
4.3.3 Aerodynamic data assessment....70
4.3.4 Special considerations................72
4.4 LOAD ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS ...76
4.4.1 Fatigue loads...............................76
4.4.2 Ultimate loads.............................82
4.5 SIMPLIFIED LOAD CALCULATIONS ..86
4.5.1 Parametrised empirical models...86
4.5.2 The simple load basis.................86
4.5.3 Quasi-static method....................87
4.5.4 Peak factor approach for
extreme loads..............................88
4.5.5 Parametrised load spectra...........89
4.6 SITE-SPECIFIC DESIGN LOADS.........92
4.7 LOADS FROM OTHER SOURCES
THAN WIND.....................................93
4.7.1 Wave loads.................................93
4.7.2 Current loads..............................99
4.7.3 Ice loads......................................99
4.7.4 Earthquake loads.........................99
4.8 LOAD COMBINATION ......................99
REFERENCES.......................................101
5. ROTOR............................................104
5.1 BLADES........................................104
5.1.1 Blade geometry.........................104
5.1.2 Design loads.............................105
5.1.3 Blade materials.........................105
5.1.4 Manufacturing techniques........108
5.1.5 Quality assurance for blade
design and manufacture............109
5.1.6 Strength analyses......................110
5.1.7 Tip deflections..........................113
5.1.8 Lightning protection.................113
5.1.9 Blade testing.............................114
5.1.10 Maintenance.............................116
5.2 HUB .............................................116
5.2.1 Determination of design loads..117
5.2.2 Strength Analysis......................117
5.2.3 Analysis of bolt connections.....118
5.2.4 Hub enclosure...........................118
5.2.5 Materials...................................118
5.2.6 Standards..................................119
REFERENCES.......................................119
6. NACELLE.......................................120
6.1 MAIN SHAFT.................................120
6.1.1 Determination of design loads..120
6.1.2 Strength analysis.......................120
6.1.3 Fatigue strength........................121
6.1.4 Ultimate strength......................125
6.1.5 Main shaft-gear connection......126
6.1.6 Materials...................................126
6.1.7 Standards..................................127
6.2 MAIN BEARING ............................127
6.2.1 Determination of design loads..129
6.2.2 Selection of bearing types.........130
6.2.3 Operational and
environmental conditions..........130
6.2.4 Seals, lubrication
and temperatures.......................130
6.2.5 Rating life calculations.............132
6.2.6 Connection to main shaft..........133
6.2.7 Bearing housing........................133
6.2.8 Connection to machine frame...133
6.2.9 Standards..................................133
6.3 MAIN GEAR ..................................133
6.3.1 Gear types.................................134
6.3.2 Loads and capacity...................137
6.3.3 Codes and standards.................141
6.3.4 Lubrication...............................141
6.3.5 Materials and testing.................142
6.4 COUPLINGS ..................................145
6.4.1 Flange couplings.......................145
6.4.2 Shrink fit couplings..................146
6.4.3 Key connections.......................146
6.4.4 Torsionally elastic couplings....146
6.4.5 Tooth couplings........................146
6.5 MECHANICAL BRAKE ...................146
6.5.1 Types of brakes.........................146
6.5.2 Brake discs and brake pads.......148
6.5.3 Brake torque sequence..............148
6.6 HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS ..................149
6.6.1 Arrangement.............................149
6.6.2 Accumulators............................149
6.6.3 Valves.......................................149
6.6.4 Application in
protection systems....................150
6.6.5 Additional provisions...............151
6.6.6 Codes and standards.................151
6.7 GENERATOR.................................151
6.7.1 Types of generators..................151
6.7.2 Climate aspects.........................153
6.7.3 Safety aspects...........................153
6.7.4 Cooling and degree of sealing..155
6.7.5 Vibrations.................................155
6.7.6 Overspeed.................................155
6.7.7 Overloading..............................155
6.7.8 Materials...................................156
6.7.9 Generator braking.....................156
6.7.10 Lifetime....................................157
6.7.11 Testing of generators................157
6.8 MACHINE SUPPORT FRAME...........157
6.9 NACELLE ENCLOSURE ..................158
6.10 YAW SYSTEM ...............................158
6.10.1 Determination of design loads..160
6.10.2 Yaw drive.................................161
6.10.3 Yaw ring...................................162
6.10.4 Yaw brake.................................162
6.10.5 Yaw bearing..............................163
6.10.6 Yaw error and control...............166
6.10.7 Cable twist................................166
6.10.8 Special design considerations...166
REFERENCES.......................................167
7. TOWER...........................................169
7.1 LOAD CASES.................................170
7.2 DESIGN LOADS .............................170
7.3 GENERAL VERIFICATIONS FOR
TOWERS........................................171
7.3.1 Dynamic response
and resonance..............................171
7.3.2 Critical blade
deflection analysis.......................172
7.4 TUBULAR TOWERS .......................173
7.4.1 Loads and responses.................173
7.4.2 Extreme loads...........................174
7.4.3 Fatigue loads.............................174
7.4.4 Vortex induced vibrations.........174
7.4.5 Welded joints............................175
7.4.6 Stress concentrations near
hatches and doors......................176
7.4.7 Stability analysis.......................177
7.4.8 Flange connections...................178
7.4.9 Corrosion protection.................179
7.4.10 Tolerances and specifications...179
7.5 ACCESS AND WORKING
ENVIRONMENT .............................180
7.6 EXAMPLE OF TOWER LOAD
CALCULATION ..............................180
7.6.1 Loads and responses.................180
7.6.2 Occurrence of extreme loads during
normal power production..........181
7.6.3 Extreme loads – parked turbine182
7.6.4 Fatigue loading.........................183
REFERENCES.......................................186
8. FOUNDATIONS.............................187
8.1 SOIL INVESTIGATIONS ..................187
8.1.1 General.....................................187
8.1.2 Recommendations for gravity
based foundations.....................188
8.1.3 Recommendations for pile
foundations...............................189
8.2 GRAVITY-BASED FOUNDATIONS...189
8.2.1 Bearing capacity formulas........190
8.3 PILE-SUPPORTED FOUNDATIONS...193
8.3.1 Pile groups................................194
8.3.2 Axial pile resistance..................195
8.3.3 Laterally loaded piles................197
8.3.4 Soil resistance for embedded
pile caps....................................200
8.4 FOUNDATION STIFFNESS...............201
8.5 PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED
CONCRETE ...................................206
8.5.1 Fatigue......................................206
8.5.2 Crack-width..............................207
8.5.3 Execution..................................208
8.6 SELECTED FOUNDATION
STRUCTURE CONCEPTS FOR
OFFSHORE APPLICATIONS .............208
8.6.1 Introduction to concepts...........208
8.6.2 Monopile..................................209
8.6.3 Tripod.......................................215
REFERENCES.......................................221
9. ELECTRICAL SYSTEM...............223
9.1 ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS...........223
9.1.1 Generators.................................223
9.1.2 Softstarter.................................225
9.1.3 Capacitor bank..........................225
9.1.4 Frequency converter.................226
9.2 WIND TURBINE CONFIGURATIONS 227
9.3 POWER QUALITY AND GRID
CONNECTION ................................229
9.4 ELECTRICAL SAFETY ....................230
9.5 WIND FARM INTEGRATION ...........231
REFERENCES.......................................232
10. MANUALS......................................233
10.1 USER MANUAL .............................233
10.2 SERVICE AND MAINTENANCE
MANUAL.......................................233
10.3 INSTALLATION MANUAL...............233
REFERENCE.........................................233
11. TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS..234
11.1 POWER PERFORMANCE
MEASUREMENTS...........................234
11.2 LOAD MEASUREMENTS.................236
11.3 TEST OF CONTROL AND
PROTECTION SYSTEM....................237
11.4 POWER QUALITY MEASUREMENT .237
11.5 BLADE TESTING............................237
11.6 NOISE MEASUREMENTS ................237
REFERENCES.......................................237
A. BOLT CONNECTIONS.................239
A.1 BOLT STANDARDIZATION.............239
A.2 STRENGTH....................................239
A.3 IMPACT STRENGTH .......................239
A.4 SURFACE TREATMENT ..................239
A.5 S-N CURVES.................................240
A.5.1 S-N curves in structural
steel codes.................................241
A.5.2 Allowable surface pressure.......242
A.6 PRETENSION.................................242
A.6.1 Safety against loosening...........244
A.7 MINIMUM DEPTH OF
THREADED HOLES.........................244
A.8 BOLT FORCE ANALYSIS ................245
A.8.1 Stiffness of bolts.......................245
A.8.2 Stiffness of the mating parts.....246
A.8.3 Force triangle............................246
A.9 CONNECTIONS SUBJECTED
TO SHEAR .....................................247
A.10 BOLTS SUBJECTED
TO TENSILE LOAD .........................248
A.11 BOLTS SUBJECTED TO TENSILE
LOAD AND SHEAR .........................249
A.12 EXECUTION OF BOLT
CONNECTIONS ..............................249
A.13 CODES AND STANDARDS..............249
REFERENCES.......................................249
B. RULES OF THUMB.......................250
B.1 LOADS..........................................250
B.1.1 Rotor loads................................250
B.1.2 Fatigue loads.............................250
B.2 ROTOR .........................................250
B.3 NACELLE......................................251
B.3.1 Main shaft.................................251
B.4 NOISE...........................................251
REFERENCES.......................................251
C. FATIGUE CALCULATIONS.......252
C.1 STRESS RANGES............................252
C.2 FRACTURE MECHANICS ................252
C.3 S-N CURVES .................................253
C.4 THE PALMGREN-MINER RULE ......254
C.5 FATIGUE IN WELDED STRUCTURES 255
C.6 CHARACTERISTIC S-N CURVES
FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL...............256
C.7 CHARACTERISTIC S-N CURVES
FOR FORGED OR ROLLED STEEL ....256
C.8 S-N CURVES FOR COMPOSITES ......257
C.9 OTHER TYPES OF FATIGUE
ASSESSMENT ................................258
REFERENCES.......................................258
D. FEM CALCULATIONS.................260
D.1 TYPES OF ANALYSIS .....................260
D.2 MODELLING .................................261
D.2.1 Model........................................261
D.2.2 Elements...................................262
D.2.3 Boundary conditions.................264
D.2.4 Loads........................................265
D.3 DOCUMENTATION ........................265
D.3.1 Model........................................265
D.3.2 Results......................................267
E. MATERIAL PROPERTIES..........268
E.1 STEEL...........................................268
E.1.1 Structural steel..........................268
E.1.2 Alloy steel.................................269
E.2 CAST IRON....................................269
E.3 FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTICS ......269
E.3.1 Glass fibre reinforced plastics..269
E.4 CONCRETE ...................................270
E.4.1 Mechanical properties...............270
REFERENCES.......................................270
F. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS.......271
REFERENCES.......................................276
G. TABLES AND CONVERSIONS...277
G.1 ENGLISH/METRIC CONVERSION ....277
G.2 AIR DENSITY VS. TEMPERATURE ..277
G.3 AIR DENSITY VS. HEIGHT..............277
G.4 RAYLEIGH WIND DISTRIBUTION....277
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