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أخوانى فى الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Introduction to Nondestructive Testing - A Training Guide Second Edition Paul E. Mix
![كتاب Introduction to Nondestructive Testing - A Training Guide I_t_n_11](https://i.servimg.com/u/f61/15/36/74/14/i_t_n_11.jpg) و المحتوى كما يلي :
CONTENTS Preface xxv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Digital Technology, 1 1.2 Smaller Is Better, 2 1.3 Medical Marvels, 5 1.4 Improving Shuttle Safety, 6 1.5 Airport Security, 9 1.6 Process Control, 9 1.7 Instrument Synchronization with PXI, 10 1.8 PCI vs. PXI, 11 1.9 60,000-Mile-High Elevator, 11 1.10 Proliferation of Information, 12 2 Acoustic Emissions 15 2.1 Principles and Theory, 15 2.2 Signal Propagation, 16 2.3 Physical Considerations, 16 2.4 The AE Process Chain, 17 2.5 Time Considerations, 18 2.6 AE Parameters, 18 2.7 The AE Measurement Chain, 20 2.7.1 Coupling Agents, 21 2.7.2 AE Sensors, 21 vii2.7.3 Sensor Attachment, 22 2.7.4 Sensor to Preamplifier Cable, 22 2.7.5 AE Preamplifier, 23 2.7.6 Preamplifier to System Cable, 23 2.8 Vallen AMSY-5 High-Speed AE System, 24 2.8.1 Frequency Filter, 24 2.8.2 The A/D Converter, 25 2.8.3 Feature Extraction, 25 2.8.4 Transient Recorder, 25 2.8.5 Data Buffer, 26 2.8.6 Personal Computer and Software, 26 2.8.7 Sensor Coupling Test (Autocalibration), 26 2.9 Location Calculation and Clustering, 27 2.9.1 Location Calculation Based on Time Differences, 27 2.9.2 Clustering, 29 2.9.3 Sample Analysis Screen, 30 2.9.4 Visualization of Measurement Results, 32 2.10 Advantages and Limitations of AE Testing, 32 2.10.1 Advantages, 32 2.10.2 Advantages of Using Operating Medium (Gas or Liquid), 32 2.10.3 Advantages Compared to Other NDT Methods, 33 2.10.4 Limitations, 33 2.10.5 Location Errors, 33 2.11 AMSY-5 Main Features, 34 2.12 AE Transducers, 34 2.13 Kistler Piezotron Acoustic Emission Sensors and Couplers, 35 2.14 AE Sensor Construction, 35 2.15 Summary of AE Sensor Features, 36 2.16 Technical Specifications—8152B2 Sensor, 36 2.17 AE Coupler Features, 36 2.18 Technical Specifications—5125B Coupler, 38 2.18.1 Input, 38 2.18.2 Output, 38 2.19 Acoustic Emission Technology, 38 2.20 AE Applications, 39 2.21 AE Theory, 39 2.22 Applications, 41 2.22.1 Behavior of Materials—Metals, Ceramics, Composites, Rocks, Concrete, 41 2.22.2 Nondestructive Testing During Manufacturing Processes, 41 2.22.3 Monitoring Structures, 41 2.22.4 Special Applications, 41 viii CONTENTSCONTENTS ix 2.23 Advanced Equipment, 42 2.23.1 PCI-2 AE Unit, 42 2.23.2 Key Features, 42 2.23.3 PCI-8, 16-Bit, 8-Channel AE Unit, 43 2.23.4 MicroSAMOSTM, Budget, Compact AE System, 44 2.23.5 DiSP Systems, 45 2.23.6 PCI/DSP-4 Card, 45 2.23.7 Features of PCI/DSP-4 System Board, 47 2.23.8 PCI/DSP-4 Board Operation and Functions, 47 2.23.9 DiSP System Block Diagram, 49 2.23.10 Other Company Products, 50 2.24 Codes, Standards, Practices, Guidelines, and Societies, 50 2.24.1 Sheer Numbers, 52 2.24.2 Terminology, 52 2.24.3 Common Term Definitions, 52 2.24.4 General Principles, 53 2.24.5 Measurement Techniques and Calibration, 53 2.24.6 Areas of Opportunity, 53 2.25 Application and Product-Specific Procedures, 54 2.26 Impact-Echo Method, 54 2.26.1 Background, 54 2.26.2 Finite Element Code, 55 2.26.3 Ball Bearing–Generated Stress, 55 2.26.4 Impact-Echo Transducer Development, 56 2.26.5 Frequency Domain Analysis, 56 2.26.6 Theory of Operations, 56 2.26.7 Propagation of Waves, 57 2.26.8 Impact-Echo Instrumentation, 59 2.26.8.1 System Components, 59 2.26.8.2 Heavy-Duty Carrying Case, 60 2.26.8.3 Computer Recommendations, 60 2.27 Technical Specifications, 61 2.27.1 Hand-Held Transducer Unit, 61 2.27.2 A/D Data Acquisition System, 62 2.27.3 Windows-Based Software, 63 2.28 Applications, 64 3 Electromagnetic Testing Method 65 3.1 Eddy Current Theory, 66 3.1.1 Surface Mounted Coils, 66 3.1.2 Encircling Coils, 71 3.2 Magnetic Flux Leakage Theory, 73 3.3 Eddy Current Sensing Probes, 793.4 Flux Leakage Sensing Probes, 83 3.4.1 Induction Coils, 83 3.4.2 Hall Effect Sensors, 84 3.5 Factors Affecting Flux Leakage, 87 3.6 Signal-to-Noise Ratio, 88 3.7 Test Frequency, 88 3.8 Magnetization for Flux Leakage Testing, 90 3.9 Coupling, 95 3.10 Eddy Current Techniques, 95 3.11 Instrument Design Considerations, 96 3.12 UniWest US-454 EddyViewTM, 98 3.12.1 E-Lab Model US-450, 101 3.12.2 ETC-2000 Scanner, 102 3.13 Institut Dr. Foerster, 103 3.14 Magnetic Flux Leakage Testing, 106 3.15 Applications, 108 3.15.1 General Eddy Current Applications, 108 3.15.2 Specific Eddy Current Applications, 110 3.15.3 General Flux Leakage Applications, 111 3.15.4 Specific Leakage Flux Applications, 111 3.16 Use of Computers, 112 3.17 Barkhausen Noise/Micromagnetic Testing, 112 3.17.1 Introduction, 112 3.18 Early Applications, 113 3.19 Principles of Measurement, 114 3.20 Equipment, 115 3.21 Technical Specifications, 117 3.22 Calibration and Testing, 117 3.23 Current Applications, 120 3.23.1 Applications in Aircraft/Automotive/Marine Industries, 120 3.24 General Applications, 121 3.24.1 Pipe/Tubing/Sheet/Plate Manufacturing, 121 3.25 Electromechanical Acoustic Transducers (EMATs), 121 3.25.1 EMATs Advantages Over Piezoelectric Transducers, 122 3.26 Basic Theory of Operation, 122 3.27 Recent Applications and Developments, 123 3.28 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) Method, 124 3.29 ACFM Principles of Operation, 125 3.29.1 Bx and Bz Components, 126 3.29.2 Butterfly Plot, 127 3.30 Probe Design, 127 3.31 Applications, 128 x CONTENTS4 Laser Testing Methods 131 4.1 Introduction, 131 4.2 Disadvantages, 132 4.3 Main Advantages, 132 4.4 Laser Theory, 132 4.5 Laser Safety, 133 4.6 Laser Classification, 133 4.7 Training, 134 4.8 Profilometry Methods, 134 4.8.1 Stylus Profilometry, 135 4.8.2 Optical Profilometry, 135 4.8.3 White Light Interferometry, 135 4.9 Basic TV Holography/ESPI Interferometry, 136 4.9.1 Single Laser Operation, 136 4.9.2 Camera Operation, 136 4.9.3 Applications, 137 4.9.4 Thermal Stresses, 139 4.9.5 Quantitative Aspects of Mechanical Stress, 140 4.9.6 Qualitative Aspects, 141 4.10 Nanometric Profiling Measurements, 141 4.10.1 Introduction, 141 4.10.2 Autofocus Principle, 142 4.10.3 Specifications, 142 4.10.3.1 Sensor, 142 4.10.3.2 Camera, 142 4.11 Conoscopic Holography, 143 4.11.1 Theory, 143 4.11.2 Specifications, 143 4.12 Confocal Measurement, 144 4.12.1 Specifications, 144 4.12.1.1 Sensor, 144 4.12.1.2 Camera, 144 4.13 NanoSurf Confocal Microscopy, 145 4.13.1 Introduction, 145 4.13.2 Standard Components, 146 4.13.3 Options, 146 4.14 3D Confocal Microscopy, 146 4.14.1 Principle of Operation, 146 4.14.2 Advantages, 146 4.14.3 Specifications, 146 4.15 Nanometric Profiling Applications, 147 4.16 Scanning Laser Profilometry, 147 4.16.1 Optical Principle, 148 4.16.2 Probes, 149 CONTENTS xi4.16.3 3D Profiler, 149 4.16.4 LP-2000TM Control Unit, 150 4.17 Laser-Scanned Penetrant Inspection (LSPITM-Patent Pending), 152 4.17.1 Applications, 154 4.18 Advanced Techniques, 154 4.19 Natural and External Excitation, 154 4.20 Strain/Stress Measurement, 155 4.20.1 Theory of Operation, 155 4.20.2 Technical Data, 156 4.21 Longer Range 3D Speckle Interferometry System, 157 4.21.1 Technical Data, 158 4.21.2 Hardware and Software Options, 158 4.21.3 Applications for 3D-ESPI Systems, 158 4.21.4 Technical Data, 160 4.22 Nondestructive Testing (NDT), 161 4.23 Shearography, 161 4.23.1 Principle of Laser Shearography, 161 4.23.2 Compact Shearography System, 162 4.23.3 Technical Data, 163 4.24 Portable Shearography System, 164 4.24.1 Technical Data, 164 4.24.2 Other Applications, 165 4.25 Feltmetal Inspection System, 166 4.25.1 Setup and Technique, 166 4.25.2 Technical Data, 166 4.26 Optional Applications, 168 4.27 Optical Inspection Systems, 168 4.27.1 ARAMIS, 168 4.27.2 Industry-Specific Applications, 170 4.27.3 Measuring Procedure, 170 4.27.4 Measurement Results, 170 4.27.5 Measurement Advantages, 170 4.27.6 Comparison of ESPI and 3D Image Correlation, 171 4.27.7 ARAMIS HR Specifications, 172 4.28 ARGUS, 172 4.29 TRITOP, 174 4.29.1 Photogrammetric Offline System, 174 4.29.2 Measurable Object Size, 174 4.29.3 Digital Photogrammetry Functionality, 174 4.30 System Advantages, 175 4.31 Portable Measuring System Technique, 175 4.32 Dynamic TRITOP, 177 4.33 Other Laser Methods, 177 4.33.1 Measurement of Hot Spots in Metal/Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors, 177 xii CONTENTS5 Leak Testing Methods 179 5.1 Introduction, 179 5.2 Fundamentals, 180 5.3 Ultrasonic Leak Testing, 180 5.3.1 Ultrasonic Leak Detectors, 180 5.4 Bubble Leak Testing, 183 5.5 Dye Penetrant Leak Testing, 183 5.6 Pressure Change Leak Testing, 183 5.7 Helium Mass Spectrometer Leak Testing, 184 5.8 Mass Spectrometer Leak Detector, 184 5.9 MSLD Subsystems, 184 5.9.1 Spectrometer Tube, 185 5.9.2 Vacuum Systems, 186 5.10 Vacuum System Configurations, 186 5.10.1 Conventional (Direct) Flow, 186 5.10.2 Contraflow (Reverse) Flow, 187 5.10.3 Midstage Flow, 188 5.10.4 Multiple Flow, 188 5.11 Electronics, 189 5.11.1 I/O Functions, 190 5.12 Methods of Leak Detection, 190 5.13 Vacuum Testing Method (Outside-In), 191 5.13.1 Locating Leaks, 191 5.13.2 Measuring Leaks, 192 5.14 Pressure Test Method (Inside-Out), 192 5.14.1 Locating Leaks, 192 5.14.2 Measuring Leaks, 193 5.15 Accumulation Testing Method, 194 5.16 Vacuum Systems, 194 5.17 Pressurized Systems, 195 5.18 MSLD Configurations, 196 5.18.1 “Wet” or “Dry” Pumps, 196 5.18.2 Cabinet or Workstation Models, 196 5.18.3 Portable Units, 197 5.18.4 Component or Integratable Units, 197 5.19 Calibration, 197 5.19.1 Calibrated Leaks, 198 5.20 Radioisotope Tracer Leak Testing, 198 5.21 Bubble Leak Testing, 199 5.21.1 Leak Detector Solution, 199 5.21.2 Vacuum Box Bubble Tracer Leak Testing, 199 5.21.3 Pressure Bubble Leak Testing, 200 5.21.4 Indications, 201 5.22 Pressure Change Leak Testing, 202 CONTENTS xiii5.22.1 Principles, 202 5.22.2 Terminology, 202 5.22.3 Equipment, 203 5.22.4 Pressurizing Gases, 204 5.23 Pressure Change Measurement Testing, 205 5.23.1 Reference System Technique, 207 5.24 Leakage Rate and Flow Measurement Testing, 207 5.25 Nuclear Reactor Systems, 208 5.26 Halogen Diode Leak Testing, 209 5.26.1 Principles, 209 5.26.2 Terminology, 210 5.26.3 Gases and Equipment, 210 5.26.4 Calibration, 210 5.27 “Sniffer” Techniques, 212 5.27.1 Equipment Operation and Servicing, 212 5.27.2 Normal Operation, 212 5.28 VIC MSLD Leak Detectors, 213 5.29 MSLD Subsystems, 216 5.29.1 Spectrometer Tube, 217 5.29.2 Vacuum System, 218 5.30 Operating Sequence (MS-40 and MS-40 Dry), 219 5.31 Calibration Sequence (MS-40 and MS-40 Dry), 220 6 Liquid Penetrant Tests 221 6.1 Introduction, 221 6.2 Processing, 222 6.3 Test Methods, 224 6.3.1 Water Washable Fluorescent Penetrant Process, 224 6.3.2 Post-Emulsification Fluorescent Process, 226 6.3.3 Reverse Fluorescent Dye Penetrant Process, 227 6.3.4 Visible Dye Penetrant Process, 227 6.3.5 Water Emulsifiable Visible Dye Penetrant Process, 228 6.3.6 Water Washable Visible Dye Penetrant Process, 228 6.3.7 Post-Emulsifiable Visible Dye Penetrant Process, 229 6.3.8 Solvent Clean Visible Dye Penetrant Process, 229 6.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Methods, 230 6.5 Test Equipment, 231 6.6 Penetrant Materials, 236 6.7 System Comparisons, 238 6.8 Applications, 239 6.9 Measurement of UV and Visible Light, 242 6.10 Automatic and Semiautomatic Penetrant Testing Methods, 245 xiv CONTENTS7 Magnetic Particle Testing 247 7.1 Magnetic Principles, 247 7.2 Magnets and Magnetic Fields, 249 7.3 Discontinuities and Defects, 252 7.4 Induced Magnetic Fields, 254 7.5 Circular and Longitudinal Fields, 257 7.6 Selection of Magnetizing Method, 262 7.7 Commercial Equipment, 263 7.8 Wet and Dry Particle Inspection, 264 7.9 MT Improvements, 267 7.9.1 Remote Magnetic Particle Inspection, 269 7.9.2 Probe Power, 269 7.9.3 Lightweight UV Lamps, 270 7.9.4 Dual Light (UV/Visible and Visible) Particle Indications, 270 7.10 Applications, 270 7.11 Residual Fields and Demagnetization, 273 7.12 Magnetic Flux Strips, 275 7.13 Hall Effect Gaussmeter, 276 7.14 The Hysteresis Curve, 277 7.15 Selection of Equipment, 280 7.16 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Method, 285 7.17 Magnetic Rubber Inspection, 285 7.17.1 Introduction, 285 7.17.2 Inspection Principles, 285 7.17.3 Advantages of MRI, 286 7.17.4 Formulations, 287 7.18 Underwater MRI, 288 7.18.1 Technique, 288 7.18.2 Disadvantages, 288 7.19 Magnetic Penetrameters, 289 7.20 Automatic and Semiautomatic Inspection, 289 7.21 Magwerks Integrated System Tracking Technology, 290 7.21.1 Basic Operation, 290 7.21.1.1 Basic Operation—Automatic Mode, 291 7.21.1.2 Applications, 295 7.22 Discontinuities and Their Appearances, 296 7.23 Nonrelevant Indications, 297 8 Neutron Radiographic Testing 301 8.1 Introduction, 301 8.2 Physical Principles, 303 8.3 Neutron Radiation Sources, 304 CONTENTS xv8.4 Neutron Activation Analysis, 304 8.5 Ward Center TRIGA Reactor, 307 8.6 Radiation Hazards and Personal Protection, 309 8.7 Radiation Detection Imaging, 311 8.7.1 Conversion Screens, 312 8.7.2 Indirect Transfer Method, 312 8.7.3 Direct Transfer Method, 312 8.7.4 Fluorescent Screens, 313 8.8 Electronic Imaging, 313 8.9 Nonimaging Detectors, 313 8.10 Neutron Radiographic Process, 313 8.11 Interpretation of Results, 315 8.12 Other Neutron Source Applications, 316 8.13 Neutron Level Gauges, 320 8.14 Californium-252 Sources, 321 8.15 Neutron Radioscopic Systems, 321 8.15.1 Introduction, 321 8.15.2 Neutron Imaging System Components, 322 8.15.3 Online Inspection Systems, 323 8.15.4 Characteristics of Aluminum Corrosion, 323 8.15.5 Thermal Neutron Inspection System Requirements, 324 8.15.6 Conclusions, 324 9 Radiographic Testing Method 325 9.1 Industrial Radiography, 325 9.1.1 Personnel Monitoring, 325 9.1.2 Selected Definitions, 326 9.1.3 Survey Instruments, 327 9.1.4 Leak Testing of Sealed Sources, 329 9.1.5 Survey Reports, 331 9.2 Work Practices, 331 9.3 Time—Distance—Shielding—Containment, 332 9.4 Regulatory Requirements, 335 9.5 Exposure Devices, 335 9.6 State and Federal Regulations, 337 9.7 Basic Radiographic Physics, 338 9.7.1 Introduction—Isotope Production, 338 9.8 Fundamental Properties of Matter, 339 9.9 Radioactive Materials, 340 9.9.1 Stability and Decay, 341 9.9.2 Activity, 341 9.9.3 Half-Life, 342 9.10 Types of Radiation, 343 9.11 Interaction of Radiation with Matter, 346 xvi CONTENTS9.12 Biological Effects, 348 9.13 Radiation Detection, 352 9.13.1 Survey Instruments, 354 9.14 Radiation Sources, 356 9.14.1 Isotope Sources, 356 9.15 Portable Linear Accelerators, 359 9.16 Special Radiographic Techniques, 360 9.17 Standard Radiographic Techniques, 361 9.17.1 Introduction, 361 9.17.2 Basic Principles, 363 9.17.3 Screens, 364 9.17.4 Film Composition, 365 9.18 The Radiograph, 365 9.18.1 Image Quality, 370 9.18.2 Film Handling, Loading, and Processing, 374 9.18.3 High-Intensity Illuminators, 376 9.19 Fluoroscopy Techniques, 377 9.20 Flat Panel Digital Imaging Systems, 378 9.21 Flat Panel Systems vs. Fuji Dynamix CR Imaging System, 379 9.21.1 Resolution, 379 9.21.2 Ghost Images, 380 9.21.3 Image Lag, 380 9.21.4 Dark Current Noise, 381 9.21.5 Portability, 381 9.21.6 Temperature Sensitivity, 381 9.21.7 Flexibility, 381 9.21.8 Fragility, 381 9.21.9 Advantages, 381 9.22 Industrial Computed Tomography, 382 9.22.1 Scan Procedure, 382 9.22.2 Applications of Industrial Computed Tomography, 383 9.22.3 CT System Components, 384 9.23 Automatic Defect Recognition, 387 9.23.1 Imaging Improvements, 387 9.23.2 LDA Design and Operation, 389 9.23.3 ADR Techniques, 389 9.23.4 Neural Network Artificial Intelligence (AI), 390 9.23.5 Rule Base Using Specific Algorithms, 392 9.23.5.1 Operating Sequence, 392 9.23.6 ADR Advances of a PC Platform Over Proprietary Hardware, 392 9.23.7 ADR Techniques, 392 9.23.8 SADR, 392 9.23.9 Conclusions, 393 9.24 The Digitome Process, 393 CONTENTS xvii9.24.1 Examination Concept, 394 9.24.2 Digital Flat Panel Detector, 395 9.24.3 Image Acquisition, 396 9.24.4 Flaw Location and Measurement, 396 9.24.5 Other Applications, 396 9.25 Manufacturing Processes and Discontinuities, 397 9.26 Other Isotope Applications, 397 9.26.1 Electron Capture Detection, 397 9.26.2 Moisture Gauging, 397 9.26.3 Bone Density, 400 9.26.4 Gamma and Beta Thickness Gauging, 401 9.26.5 Gamma and Beta Backscatter Thickness Gauging, 401 9.26.6 Gamma Level Gauging, 402 9.26.7 Gamma Density Measurement, 402 9.26.8 Point Level Switch, 404 9.26.8.1 Features and Benefits, 405 9.26.9 Oil Well Logging, 405 10 Thermal/Infrared Testing Method 407 10.1 Basic Modes of Heat Transfer, 407 10.2 The Nature of Heat Flow, 408 10.2.1 Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions, 408 10.2.1.1 Exothermic Reactions, 408 10.2.1.2 Endothermic Reactions, 409 10.3 Temperature Measurement, 409 10.4 Common Temperature Measurements, 410 10.4.1 Melting Point Indicators, 410 10.5 Color Change Thermometry, 411 10.5.1 Irreversible Color Change Indicators, 411 10.5.2 Thermochromic Liquid Crystal Indicators, 413 10.5.3 Liquid in Glass Thermometers, 415 10.6 Temperature Sensors with External Readouts, 416 10.6.1 Thermocouple Sensors, 416 10.6.2 Special Thermocouple Products, 418 10.6.3 Resistance Temperature Devices (RTDs), 418 10.6.3.1 RTD Sensing Elements and Typical Temperature Ranges, 418 10.6.4 Resistance Temperature Elements (RTEs), 420 10.7 Infrared Imaging Energy, 420 10.8 Heat and Light Concepts, 421 10.9 Pyrometers, 422 10.9.1 Error Correction, 422 10.9.2 Principles of Operation, 423 10.9.2.1 Narrow-Band Optical Pyrometers, 423 10.9.2.2 Broad-Band Optical Pyrometers, 424 xviii CONTENTS10.9.3 Design and Operations of Optical Pyrometers, 426 10.9.4 Applications for Broad-Band Optical Pyrometers, 427 10.9.5 Installation of Optical Pyrometers, 427 10.10 Infrared Imaging Systems, 427 10.10.1 Blackbody Calibration Sources, 427 10.11 Spacial Resolution Concepts, 428 10.11.1 FOV, IFOV, MIFOV, and GIFOV, 428 10.11.2 Angular Resolving Power, 428 10.11.3 Error Potential in Radiant Measurements, 429 10.12 Infrared Testing Method, 429 10.12.1 Preventive and Predictive Maintenance Programs, 429 10.12.2 Electrical PdM Applications, 429 10.12.3 Mechanical PdM Applications, 430 10.13 High-Performance Thermal Imager for Predictive Maintenance, 430 10.13.1 Predictive Maintenance Program, 431 10.13.2 Specifications, 432 10.13.2.1 Thermal, 432 10.13.2.2 Controls, 433 10.13.2.3 Optional Features, 433 10.13.2.4 Other, 433 10.14 High-Performance Radiometric IR System, 433 10.14.1 Introduction, 433 10.14.2 Applications, 434 10.14.3 Theory of Operation, 434 10.14.4 Operating Technique, 436 10.14.5 Typical Specifications, 438 10.15 Mikron Instrument Company, Inc., 439 10.16 Mikron 7200V Thermal Imager and Visible Light Camera, 440 10.16.1 General Features, 440 10.16.2 Technical Data, 440 10.16.2.1 Performance, 440 10.16.2.2 Presentation, 441 10.16.2.3 Measurement, 441 10.16.2.4 Interface, 442 10.17 High-Speed IR Line Cameras, 442 10.17.1 General Information—MikroLine Series 2128, 442 10.17.2 High-Speed Temperature Measurement of Tires, 442 10.17.2.1 Camera Specifications, 443 10.18 Other Thermal Testing Methods, 444 10.18.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer, 444 10.18.1.1 DLATGS Pyroelectric Detectors, 447 10.18.1.2 FTIR Evaluation of Hard Disk Fluororesin Coating, 447 10.18.1.3 Measurement of Film Thickness on a Silicon Wafer, 448 CONTENTS xix10.18.2 Advanced Mercury Analyzer, 448 10.18.2.1 Introduction, 448 10.18.2.2 Theory of Operation, 449 10.18.2.3 Software, 450 10.18.3 Identification of Materials, 450 10.18.3.1 Thermoelectric Alloy Sorting, 450 10.18.3.2 Applications, 453 10.18.4 Advantages and Disadvantages, 454 10.18.4.1 Advantages, 454 10.18.4.2 Disadvantages, 456 11 Ultrasonic Testing 457 11.1 Introduction, 457 11.2 Definition of Acoustic Parameters of a Transducer, 458 11.3 Noncontacting Ultrasonic Testing, 458 11.3.1 NCU Transducers, 460 11.3.2 Instant Picture Analysis System, 463 11.3.3 Limitations, 465 11.3.4 Bioterrorism, 466 11.4 Ultrasonic Pulsers/Receivers, 466 11.5 Multilayer Ultrasonic Thickness Gauge, 470 11.6 Conventional Ultrasound, 471 11.6.1 Flaw Detection, 473 11.6.2 Frequency, 474 11.6.3 Ultrasonic Wave Propagation, 476 11.6.4 Acoustic Impedance, 477 11.6.5 Reflection and Refraction, 478 11.6.6 Diffraction, Dispersion, and Attenuation, 481 11.6.7 Fresnel and Fraunhofer Fields, 482 11.6.8 Generation of Ultrasonic Waves, 483 11.6.9 Search Unit Construction, 484 11.6.10 Test Methods, 489 11.7 Ultrasonic Testing Equipment, 498 11.7.1 Equipment Operation, 507 11.7.2 Flaw Transducers, 509 11.7.2.1 Instrument Features, 509 11.7.2.2 Ultrasonic Specifications, 510 11.7.2.3 Physical Description and Power Supply, 510 11.7.3 Testing Procedures, 512 11.7.3.1 Variables Affecting Results, 517 11.8 Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD), 519 xx CONTENTS12 Vibration Analysis Method 521 12.1 Introduction, 521 12.2 Principles/Theory, 522 12.2.1 Modes of Vibration, 522 12.2.2 Resonance, 523 12.2.3 Degrees of Freedom, 524 12.3 Sources of Vibration, 524 12.4 Noise Analysis, 525 12.5 Stress Analysis, 525 12.6 Modal Analysis, 526 12.7 Vibration Analysis/Troubleshooting, 527 12.7.1 Rotating Equipment Analysis, 527 12.7.2 Order Analysis, 527 12.8 Transfer Functions, 528 12.9 Predictive Maintenance, 528 12.10 Failure Analysis, 529 12.11 Impact Testing and Frequency Response, 529 12.12 Pass and Fail Testing, 530 12.13 Correction Methods, 530 12.13.1 Alignment and Balance, 530 12.13.2 Beat Frequency, 530 12.13.3 Vibration Damping, 532 12.13.4 Dynamic Absorber/Increasing Mass, 534 12.13.5 Looseness/Nonlinear Mechanical Systems, 536 12.13.6 Isolation Treatments, 536 12.13.7 Speed Change, 540 12.13.8 Stiffening, 540 12.14 Machine Diagnosis, 541 12.15 Sensors, 543 12.15.1 Strain Gauges, 543 12.15.2 Accelerometers, 544 12.15.3 Velocity Sensors, 545 12.15.4 Displacement Sensors, 545 12.16 Rolling Element Bearing Failures, 547 12.17 Bearing Vibration/Noise, 548 12.18 Blowers and Fans, 550 12.19 Vibrotest 60 Version 4, 550 12.20 Signal Conditioning, 555 12.20.1 Acoustic Filters, 555 12.21 Equipment Response to Environmental Factors, 555 12.21.1 Temperature/Humidity, 555 12.22 Data Presentation, 555 12.22.1 Acceleration, Velocity, and Displacement, 555 12.22.2 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)/Time Waveform, 556 CONTENTS xxi12.22.3 Cepstrum Analysis, 557 12.22.4 Nyquist Frequency/Plot, 557 12.22.5 Orbit, Lissajous, X-Y, and Hysteresis Plots, 559 12.23 Online Monitoring, 560 12.23.1 Trend Analysis, 560 12.24 Portable Noise and Vibration Analysis System, 560 12.24.1 Typical Applications, 562 12.24.2 System Requirements, 562 12.25 Laser Methods, 562 12.25.1 Theory of Operation, 563 12.25.2 Applications, 565 12.25.3 Specifications, 566 12.26 TEC’s Aviation Products, 567 12.26.1 Analyzer Plus Model 1700, 567 12.26.1.1 Flexible System, 568 12.26.1.2 User Friendly, 568 12.26.1.3 Expandability, 568 12.26.1.4 Quality Commitment, 568 12.26.1.5 Engine Fan Balancing Application, 569 12.26.1.6 Technical Specifications, 569 12.26.2 ProBalancer Analyzer 2020, 570 12.26.2.1 Software Features, 571 12.26.2.2 Technical Specifications, 572 12.26.3 Viper 4040, 572 12.26.3.1 Automated Track and Balancing, 572 12.26.3.2 Vibration Analysis, 574 12.26.3.3 Acoustic Analysis, 574 12.26.3.4 Technical Specifications, 574 13 Visual and Optical Testing 575 13.1 Fundamentals, 575 13.2 Principles and Theory of Visual Testing, 576 13.3 Selection of Correct Visual Technique, 576 13.4 Equipment, 578 13.4.1 Borescopes, 578 13.4.2 Jet Engine Inspection, 581 13.4.3 Nuclear Applications, 582 13.4.4 Other Applications, 584 13.5 Fiberscopes and Videoscopes, 584 13.5.1 Applications, 585 13.6 SnakeEyeTM Diagnostic Tool, 587 13.7 Industrial Videoscopes, 589 13.7.1 Equipment and Features, 589 13.7.2 Instrument Setup, 590 xxii CONTENTS13.7.3 3D Viewing, 592 13.7.4 Applications, 592 13.7.5 Working Tools, 592 13.8 Projection Microscopes, 593 13.8.1 Leica FS4000 Forensic Comparison Microscope, 596 13.9 The Long-Distance Microscope, 600 13.9.1 New Developments, 600 13.9.2 Model K-2 Long-Distance Microscope, 601 13.9.2.1 Numerical Aperture (NA), 604 13.9.2.2 Care and Cleaning, 605 13.9.3 InfiniVar CFM-2 Video Inspection Microscope, 605 13.9.4 AccordionTM Machine Vision, 607 13.9.5 InFocus Microscope Enhancement System, 607 13.9.5.1 Spherical Aberrations, 607 13.9.5.2 InFocus Corrections, 608 13.9.5.3 Applications, 608 13.10 InfiniMaxTM Long-Distance Microscope, 611 13.11 Remote Visual Inspection, 611 13.11.1 Industries—Applications, 614 13.11.2 Camera Head Options, 616 13.11.3 Camera Pan and Tilt Features, 617 13.11.4 Hand-Held Controller, 618 13.11.5 Camera Control Unit, 619 13.11.6 Hand-Held Controller Details, 620 13.11.7 Applications, 622 13.12 Robotic Crawler Units, 623 13.12.1 Control Unit, 623 13.12.2 Cable Reels, 623 13.12.3 Crawler and Camera Options, 624 13.12.4 Applications, 624 13.13 Pipe and Vessel Inspections/Metal Joining Processes, 626 13.14 Ocean Optics Photometers, 629 13.14.1 Optical Resolution, 630 13.14.2 System Sensitivity, 633 13.14.3 Specifications, 634 13.14.4 Applications, 636 14 Overview of Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A, 2001 Edition 639 14.1 Purpose, 639 14.1.1 Personnel Qualification and Certification in Nondestructive Testing 639 14.2 NDT Levels of Qualification, 640 CONTENTS xxiii14.3 Recommended NDT Level III Education, Training, and Experience, 640 14.4 Written Practice, 641 14.5 Charts, 641 14.6 Recommended Training Courses, 641 14.6.1 Acoustic Emissions Testing Method, 641 14.6.2 Electromagnetic Testing Method, 643 14.6.3 Laser Testing Methods—Holography/Shearography, 644 14.6.4 Laser Testing Methods—Profilometry, 646 14.6.5 Leak Testing Methods, 646 14.6.6 Liquid Penetrant Testing Methods, 648 14.6.7 Magnetic Particle Testing Method, 648 14.6.8 Neutron Radiographic Testing Method, 649 14.6.9 Radiographic Testing Method, 651 14.6.10 Thermal/Infrared Testing Method, 653 14.6.11 Ultrasonic Testing Method, 654 14.6.12 Vibration Analysis Method, 655 14.6.13 Visual Testing Method, 656 14.6.14 Appendix, 657 14.6.14.1 Example Questions, 657 14.6.14.2 Answers to Example Questions, 658 14.6.15 A Dynamic Document, 658 14.6.16 Special Disclaimer, 659 Appendix 1: Bibliography of Credits 661 Appendix 2: Company Contributors 667 Index 67 A-scan, 470, 499, 500 Abrasion-resistance thermocouples, 418 Absolute bearing vibrations, 529, 541 Absolute shaft vibrations, 541 Absorptivity, 421 Absorbed dose, 326, 327 Accelerators, 303, 309, 323, 324, 337, 345, 359, 387, 397 Acceleration, 555, 556 Accelerometers, 544 Accordion machine vision, 607 Accumulated dose, 332 Accumulation testing method, 194 Acoustic filters, 555 Acoustic focusing, 485 Acoustic impedance, 477–479 Acoustic pressure vs. target distance, 461, 462 AE burst, 18–20, 25, 34 AE Coupler, 36–38 AE parameters, 18, 19 AE process chain, 17 AE measurement chain, 20 AE preamplifier, 23 AE sensor features, 36 AE sensors, 21, 35, 36, 39 AE theory, 39 Adhesive bonding, 54, 323 Adoptive reference subtraction, 391 Advanced mercury analyzer, 448–450 Advanced pan-tilt zoom camera system, 616–623 Afocal variation system (AVS), 601 Agreement states, 338 Air/gas propagation transducers, 460–463 Airport security, 9 Alignment, 114, 170, 390, 444, 524, 530, 555 Alignment and balance, 530 Alkali metals and water reactions, 408 Alloy analyzer, 10, 577 Alloy sorting, 450–456 Alpha particles, 313, 343–346 Alternating current field measurement, (ACFM), 124–130, 658 Aluminum corrosion, 321, 323 Ambient radiance, 423, 424 INDEX 671 Introduction to Nondestructive Testing: A Training Guide, Second Edition, by Paul E. Mix Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.672 INDEX Amdata automatic pipe scanner (AMAPS), 507, 508 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 51–53, 56, 106, 238, 246, 268, 269, Amplitude-distance blocks, 515, 516 Analyzer Plus Model 1700, 567–569 Angio-genesis therapy, AGT, 6 Angular resolving power, 428 Angulation, 495, 590 Annual limit on intake (ALI), 326 Anthrax spores, 466 Antialiasing filters, 574 Ariane 5 launch vehicle, 166 ARAMIS optical system, 168–170, 172 Arterial research, 434 Artificial intelligence (AI), 390 Artificial standards, 239, 514, 515, 577 As low as reasonably achievable (ALARA), 326 Attenuated total reflection (ATR), 446 Attenuation domain transducers, 458 Attenuation losses, 482, 518 Autoclave ink, 413 Autofocus principle, 142 Automated comparison bridge, 596 Automatic defect recognition (ADR), 387–393 Automatic film processing, 375 Automatic marking, 513 Automotive applications, 181, 434, 587 Autoranging sensor, 574 Aviation analysis functions, 572, 573 B-scan, 500, 629 Backscatter radiation, 316 Bandwidth (BW), 11, 42, 46, 361, 362, 413, 442, 458, 461, 468, 485, 487, 550, 553, 619 Bandwidth center frequency (BCF), 458 Basic modes of heat transfer, 407 Bearcon signature (BCS), 553 Bearing condition (Bearcon), 548, 549 Bearing vibration/noise, 548, 549 Beat frequency, 530, 532 Beam collimation, 314, 315 Beam divergence, 311, 481, 482, 489, 518 Beam purity indicator, 316 Becquerel, Henry, 338 Beta particles, 345, 346, 354 Betatrons, 345 Bimetal dial thermometers, 416 Biological damage, 134, 349 Biological effects (of radiation), 348–351 Bioterrorism, 466 Blackbody, 421, 427, 428, 439, 653 Bluetooth technology, 1 Blower and fans, 550 Boiling water reactor (BWR), 507 Bolting, 577 Bone density, 400 Bottom-blown furnaces, 409 Borescopes, 578–584 Break squeal analysis, 565 Breeder reactor, 340, 582 Broad-band optical pyrometers, 424–426 Bubble leak testing, 183, 199–202, 657 Building vibration, 524 Bulk polymerization, 409 Bunsen-Roscoe reciprocity law, 368 Butterfly plot, 127 C-scan, 122, 458, 502, 513 Cable reels, 623, 625 Calculated dose rate, 333 Calibrated leaks, 198 Camera control unit, 619, 620 Camera pan and tilt features, 617, 618 Carbon composite/s, 53 CFRP, carbon fiber reinforced plastic, 164, 165 Castings, 226, 239, 263, 289, 338, 356, 387, 393, 576, 577, 652 Casting defects, 398 Celsius temperature, 410 Cepstrum analysis, 557, 558 Characteristic curve, 315, 366–368 CCD camera, 132, 141, 152, 154, 160, 161, 163, 165, 168, 170, 172, 322, 387, 585 CCD detector, 131, 146, 149, 566, 614, 629, 633, 634 Cineradiographic work, 361 Climate controlled chambers, 521, 555 Closed circuit TV (CCTV), 580, 581, 583, 585INDEX 673 Clustering, 27, 29, 30 Coercive force, 91, 92, 249, 278, 279 Cold neutrons, 316 Cold-vapor atomic absorption spectroscopy (CVAAS), 450 Collection phase, 450 Color change crayons, 413 Color change paints, 412 Color change thermometry, 411–415 Color contrast, 224, 227, 232, 237–239, 264, 412 Comb liftering, 557 Compliance, 525, 528, 575 Composite material, 39, 53, 138, 161, 162, 164, 165, 483 Compressed fiber, 3, 460 Comptom effect., 346 Constant color intensity control (CCIC), 598 Crawler and camera options, 624, 625 Crime scene investigations (CSI), 595–599 CT scanners, 383 CT system components, 384–387 Comparison microscopes, 593–600 Computer interface dosimeter (CID), 352, 353 Condensation polymerization, 409 Conduction, 407, 408, 427, 429, 482 Confocal measurement, 144 Confocal microscopy, 145–147 Confocal point sensor, 142 Conoscopic holography, 143 Constructive interference, 532 Contact probe, 131, 180–182, 491, 550 Contact testing, 473, 478, 485, 489, 494, 499, 512 Contamination, 179, 187, 188, 196, 228, 238, 290, 293, 328, 329, 331, 350, 375, 458, 466 Continuously focusable microscope, 600 Contoured focusing, 487 Contoured shoes, 504, 505 Contraflow, 187–188, 196 Control rods, 340, 583 Convection, 407, 408, 427, 429, 434 Conventional flow, 188, 189 Conventional ultrasound, 471–488 Cooled mid-wave IR detection, 434 Corrosion, 10, 24, 33, 41, 42, 52, 108, 110, 121, 128, 130, 147, 152, 224, 228, 317, 321–324, 430, 451, 472, 506, 521, 529, 547, 550, 576–578, 584, 590, 622 Counts per minute (CPM), 328, 355 Coupling agents, 21, 56, 459, 474, 494, 498, Crack propagation, 38, 41 Crystal mosaic, 488 Crayons, 410, 411, 413 Curie, Marie and Pierre, 338 Custom periscope, 582 Cylindrical focusing, 487 D-scan, 629 Damping factor, 532 Damping ratio (z), 532 Data acquisition with a network (DAWN), 562 Data analyzer, 521 Decomposition phase, 450 Defect identification, 391 Deformation, 15, 16, 32, 35, 38, 120, 121, 137, 141, 154–156, 158, 159, 161–163, 168, 170–172, 175, 177, 526, 527, 550, 562–564, 566 Degradation of hybrid rocket motor insulation, 465 Degrees of freedom (DOF), 464, 524 Destructive interference, 532 Detection phase, 450 Detecting speeds, 574 Diffraction, dispersion and attenuation, 481, 482 Digital speckle pattern interferometry (DSPI), 155 Digital technology, 1, 406 Digital video recording, 622 Digitome X-ray imaging, 393–396 Discrete Fourier transform (DFT), 556 Displacement measurements, 541, 555, 556 Displacement sensors, 545–547 Distance amplitude correction (DAC), 510 DLATGS Pyroelectric detector, 447 Dose rates, 309, 310, 327, 331, 332, 333, 335, 341, 342, 345, 350, 354, 356 Double pulsed ruby laser system, 563–565674 INDEX Dry developer, 226, 228, 238 Dry pumps, 196 Dye penetrant, 172, 183, 222, 223, 227–230, 232, 236, 238, 578 Dye penetrant leak testing, 183 Dynamic absorber, 534–536 Dynamic behavior analysis, 541 Dynamic Tritop system, 177 Econoscope, 585, 586 Eddy current/s, 2, 3, 65–73, 79–82, 88–90, 96–108, 110, 111, 114, 121–123, 125, 150, 232, 507, 546, 547, 575, 576, 625, 643, 657 Edge detection, 391 Elastic energy, 16, 17 Electric discharged machined (EDM), 501 Electromagnetic radiation, 133, 343 Electromagnetic spectrum, 132, 134, 233, 234, 345, 421 Electron capture detection, 397 Emissivity, 421–429, 433, 436, 438, 440 Endothermic reaction, 408, 409 Engine fan balancing, 569 Engine vibration analysis, 565 Enhanced external counterpulsation, EECP, 6 Environmental factors, 328, 329, 426, 434, 440, 510, 525, 555, 569, 578, 624, 653, 657 Epithermal neutrons, 303, 312, 317, 321 Equivalent penetrameter sensitivity (EPS), 374 Error potential in radiant measurements, 429 ESPI interferometry, 135, 136, 154, 155, 157–159, 168, 169, 171, 172, 562–565 Examination of damage to vessel diffuser plates, 622, 623 Exothermic reaction, 375, 408, 409 Explosive devices, 9, 321, 650 Exposure factor, 362 Exposure time, 136, 172, 308, 310–314, 327, 332, 356, 360–370, 381, 396, 466 Extreme vibration attenuation (EVA) pad, 533, 534 Extrusions, 576, 578 Failure analysis, 170, 529, 543 Fan trim balancing, 572 Fast Fourier transform (FFT), 48, 544, 548, 550, 553, 556, 557, 560, 574 Fatigue cracks, 42, 128, 229, 253, 256, 263, 288, 500, 501, 548 Fault recognition, 541 Feature extraction, 25, 43, 44, 48 Fiberscopes and Videoscopes, 584–587 Fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP), 165 Field of view (FOV), 171, 428, 433, 436, 438, 440 Film badge, 310, 326, 327, 330, 352–354 Film graininess, 316, 371 Film thickness on a silicon wafer, 448 Finite element method (FEM), 158, 168, 170, 269 Fission fragments, 345, 346 Fission reactor, 340 Flash radiography, 360 Flat panel digital imaging, 378–381 Flaw detection, 3, 39, 76, 79, 82, 84, 94, 111, 122, 123, 459, 471–473, 502, 512 Flaw image contrast, 371 Flaw transducers, 509, 510 Flexible fiberscopes, 576, 584–589 Fluorescent penetrant, 152, 153 223–225, 227, 229, 233, 236–239, 242, 245 Fluorescent penetrant inspection, laser-scanned (LSPI), 152, 153 Fluororesin film coatings, 447, 448 Fluoroscopy, 377, 378 Focal distance (FD), 487, 488 Focal plane array (FPA), 435, 436, 438, 440 Forensic comparison, 596, 599, 610 Forgings, 289, 519, 576, 578 Forming limit curve (FLC), 143 Fourier-transform infrared spectrometer, 444–448 Fraunhofer zone, 482 Frequency analysis, 541 Frequency considerations, 512 Frequency domain transducers, 458 Frequency response, 529 Frequency response function (FRF), 526, 599 Fresnel and Fraunhofer fields, 482, 483 Fresnel zone, 482, 487INDEX 675 Fringe line/s, 140 Frisker stations, 329 Fuel rods, 340 Fuji Dynamix computed radiography, 379–381 Full field view, 132, 159 Full width half maximum (FWHM), 630 Fundamental resonant frequency, 475, 498 Fundamentals of radiation safety, 338 Gamma density measurement, 402, 404 Gas matrix piezo (GMP) transducers, 461 Gamma level gauging, 402, 403–405 General Atomics, 308 Generation of ultrasonic waves, 483, 484 G-M survey meter, 327–329 Geometric unsharpness, 314, 324, 363, 364, 371 Geometric and mathematical TOFD model, 627, 628 GLARE, fiberglass and aluminum, 165 Glare, 171, 227, 377 Golden image technique, 390 Graininess, 314, 316, 371 Gray (Gy) Si unit of absorbed dose, 326 Graybody, 422, 428 Greenberg, E. H., 451 Ground individual field of view (GIFOV), 428 H and D curve, 367 Half-life, 304, 342 Half-value layer, 335, 348, 360 Halogen diode, 209, 210–213, 657 Hall effect, 67, 83–87, 92, 95, 275, 276 Hall coefficient, 85 Hand-held controller, 620–622 Headphones, 180–182 Heat filters, 377 Heat flow, 407, 408, 653 Heat reactive ink, 415 Heat transfer, 210, 407, 408, 653 Helicopter main rotor vibration measurements, 570 Helium mass spectrometer leak testing, 184 High-end engine vibration analysis, 572 High-intensity illuminators, 376 High macroscopic cross section, 303 High-speed, high-resolution spectral data, 629 High-speed IR line camera, 442–444 High-speed temperature measurement of tires, 442–444 Holographic image, 136, 137, 141 Holographic interference, 138 Holographic sensor, 142 Holography, 132, 136, 137, 140, 141, 143, 644, 645, 658 Homeland security, 637 Horizontal ATR operation, 446, 447 Hydrogenous material, 303, 317, 321, 323 Hysteresis curve, 90, 277, 278 Identification of materials (IM), 305, 316, 448, 450–456 Identification of nuclear fuel bundle serial numbers, 622, 623 Illumination manager, 598 Image domain transducers, 458 Image freeze and storage, 622 Image quality indicators (IQI), 315, 372, 374 Image unsharpness, 371 Immersion transducers, 482, 489 Impact-echo, 54–57, 59–61, 63, 64 Impact testing, 529 Improper film handling, 374 Improper film processing, 376 Increasing mass, 534–536 Index of refraction, 481 Individual field of view (IFOV), 428, 429, 433, 436, 440 Industrial computed tomography, 382–387 Industrial polymerization, 409 Industrial radiography, 325, 337, 338 Industrial videoscopes, 589–593 Inertance, 528 InFocus corrections, 608 InFocus microscope enhancement system, 607 Infrared, 2, 10, 407, 408, 420, 421, 427–429, 435, 444, 458, 653, 654, 658 Infrared imaging, 408, 420, 427–429 Inspection speed, 76, 95, 168, 264, 266, 513676 INDEX Inspection speeds for tubular elements, 513 IC packaging, 147 Intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC), 506, 507 Intensifying screens, 364, 365 Interference patterns, 138, 139, 599 Interferogram, 161 Instant picture analysis system (iPass), 463 Inverse square law, 333, 348, 366 Ion chamber, 217, 309, 310, 317, 327, 346, 352, 354, 399, 401, 402, 587 Ionizing radiation, 309, 312, 326, 327, 339, 346, 352, 359 Iso cubes, 533 Isolation treatments, 536–540 Isotope production, 338, 341 Irrelevant moving bands of color (heat), 436 Irreversible color change indicators, 411 JCAMP standard, 445 Jet engine inspection, 581, 582 Jet engine data acquisition module (JEDA), 568 Journal bearings, 536 Joystick menu navigation, 620 Kaiser effect, 16 Kelvin scale, 410 Kirchoff’s Law, 420 Labels, 236, 312, 313, 411–415, 620 Lacquers, 411 Lamb waves, 476, 477, 493, 494, 497 Laser Methods, 562–566 Laser profilometer, 142, 578 Laser safety, 133, 644–646 Laser thermometer, 423–425 Laser-scanned penetrant inspection (LSPI), 152–154 LP-2000 laser profilometer, 150, 151 Leak rate/s, 180, 183, 184, 190, 192, 197–199, 207–209, 211, 214, 215, 217 Leak testing, bubble, 183, 199–201, 657 Leak testing, dye penetrant, 183 Leak testing, MSLD, 184, 186, 196, 198, 213, 216 Leak testing, pressure change, 183, 203, 205–209, 657 Leak testing, ultrasonic, 180, 183 L/D ratio, 307, 308, 311, 314, 316, 323, 324 Liquid crystal inks, 414 Liquid in glass thermometers, 415 Liquid penetrant testing, 221–224, 228, 231, 232, 239, 244, 245, 262, 648, 657 Linear diode array (LDA), 385–390 Locating leaks, 180, 191, 192 Long distance microscope (LDM), 600–607 Longitudinal wave, 35, 476–478, 489–492, 498, 627, 629 Looseness, 536 Lucite shoes, 487 Lucite wedges, 487 Machine diagnosis, 541–543 Machine vision systems, 601 Macroscopic cross section, 303 Magnetic crawlers, 575 Magnetism, 90, 112–115, 248, 251, 263, 273, 274, 277–279, 289, 523, 643 Man-made radiation, 326 Manipulator bridge, 503, 504 Mass, 36, 67, 171, 522–524, 527, 528, 534, 536, 541, 544, 545 Mass spectrometer leak detector, 184, 186, 198, 216 Material parameters, 514 Measured individual field of view (MIFOV), 428 Measuring area, 156, 158, 160, 164, 170, 172, 566 Measuring leaks, 180, 192, 193 Measuring sensitivity, 156, 158, 164, 165, 556, 566 Measurement range, 142, 146, 244, 401, 432, 438 Mechanical deformation, 137 Mechanical shakers, 522 Mechanical stress, 17, 113, 138, 140 Medical marvels, 5, 6 Medical radiography, 338, 345 Melting point indicators, 410, 411 Mercury in solids and solutions, 449 Meson particles, 345INDEX 677 Micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS), 3, 5, 144, Microcircuits, 578 Midstage flow, 188 Millirems per hour (mR/h), 327 Miniature fiber optic spectrometer, 633–636 Mixing of solutions, 409 Modal analysis, 526, 527, 537, 562 Mode conversion, 475, 478, 493, 495, 496, 626, 629 Modes of vibration, 477, 497, 522–524 Moderator, 303, 310 Modulation transfer function (MTF), 322 Mohr’s circle, 525, 526 Moisture gauging, 397 Molybdenum processing, 408 Monitoring structures, 41 Multi-change paints, 412 Multilayer ultrasonic thickness gauge, 470, 471 Multiple flow, 188 Nanobots, 4 Nanosurf confocal microscopy, 145 Nanotechnology, 3, 4 Narrow-band optical pyrometers, 423, 424 National voluntary laboratory accreditation program (NLAP), 417 Natural background radiation, 348, 349 Natural focus, 482 Near field distances, 483 Near IR, 421, 444 Negative stiffness mechanism (NSM), 537–540 Neutral particles, 345 Neutron activation analysis (NAA), 304, 307, 309, 316, 317 Neutron cross section, 301, 303 Neutron energy, 303, 311–315 Neutron imaging, 312, 321–324 Neutron level gauges, 320 Neutron porosity logging, 319 Neutron reflections, 314 Neutrons, 301–317, 320, 321, 326, 327, 338–341 Noise, 3, 10, 16, 18–20 Noise analysis, 525 Noise vibration harshness (NVH), 159 Nominal frequency (F), 458 Non-agreement states, 337 Noncontacting, 3, 136, 142, 162, 422, 458, 460, 463, 489, 545, 626 Noncontacting pitch-catch mode, 463, 464 Noncontacting transducers (NCU), 460–463 Noncontacting ultrasonic testing, 458–466 Nonlinear mechanical system, 536 Nonrelevant indications, 71, 88, 263, 274, 297, 299 Nuclear applications, 582–584 Nuclear bomb fallout, 349 Nuclear fission, 326, 340 Nuclear reactor, 9, 41, 208, 303, 316, 321, 326, 340, 343, 346, 622 Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), 52, 128, 308, 309, 325, 330, 331, 335, 337, 338, 349, 352 Numerical aperture (NA), 604 Nyquist frequency plot, 557, 559 Oak Ridge National Lab (ORNL), 316 Objective lens, 142, 144, 146, 578, 580, 594, 605, 611 Occupational dose limit, 349 Ocean optics photometers, 629–638 Operating deflection shape (ODS), 527 Optical inspection, 168 Optical pyrometers, 423–427 Optimum magnification (fluoroscopy), 377 Orbit plots, 559 Order analysis, 527, 528 Order frequency, 527 Order tracking, 527 Paint brush transducer, 488, 512 Pair production, 347 Pancake probe, 327, 329 Paper mill process, 434 Particle radiation, 303, 343 Particle vibration, 474, 476, 477, 490 Pass and fail testing, 531, 536 Peak frequency (PF), 458678 INDEX Pellets, 313, 340, 410 Penetrameter, 289, 315, 370, 372–374, 378, 491 Penetrant materials, 224, 236–238 Penetrant testing, 221–224, 232, 239, 244, 245, 262, 648, 657 Percent transmittance (%T), 636 Permeability, 72, 73, 76, 79, 84, 88–90, 96, 108, 110, 125, 126, 249, 251, 253, 262, 264, 275, 305 Personnel monitoring, 310, 325, 337, 338, 649, 651 PCI bus, 10, 11, 34, 39, 42–49, 444 Phase-stepping, 162 Photoelectric effect, 346 Photofluorescent, 365 Photographic density, 315, 366, 367 Photons, 133, 341–346, 354, 355, 402, 408, 421, 428, 436, 436, 634 Piezoelectric sensor, 21, 23, 34 Pipe and vessel inspections, 626–629 Pipe weld inspection, 575 Planck’s law, 423 Pocket dosimeter, 310, 326, 327, 330, 352 Polychromic inks, 415 Portable accelerators, 359 Portable noise and vibration analyzer, 560–562 Portable ultrasonic flaw detector, 507, 509 Position-sensing device (PSD), 149 Post emulsification, 226, 229 Predictive maintenance (PdM), 429–431, 521, 528, 550, 556, 562, 657 Pressure change leak testing, 183, 202, 205 Pressurization stress, 645 Preventive and predictive maintenance program (PPM), 429, 431, 550 Primary reaction control system (PRCS), 6, 7 Probalancer Analyzer 2020, 570–572 Probability of detection (POD), 577 Probe manipulator, 489, 502–504 Process Control, 1, 9, 10, 41, 101, 285, 291, 294, 393, 410, 439, 440, 455, 630 Profilometry, 134, 135, 142, 147, 646, 658 Projection microscopes, 593–600 Propellar balancing kit, 571 Proportional counter, 310, 313, 397 Pulse dampening, 499 Pulse generation, 475, 476 Pulse-echo method, 55, 465, 467, 469, 473, 490, 510 Pulse repetition rate, 463, 466, 467–469, 499, 513 Pulse width (PW), 458, 467, 485, 500 Pulsed 3D ESPI system, 563–566 Pulser, 50, 360, 463, 464, 466–468 Pulser/receiver, 468–470 Pumps, 4, 6, 10, 16, 186, 187, 195, 196, 216, 218, 239, 289, 402, 521, 524, 550, 577, 583 PXI bus, 10, 11 Pyrometers, 10, 422–427 Quality estimation, 391 Radiation area, 325, 332, 335 Radiation dose, 9, 310, 311, 326, 327, 331–336, 349, 350, 353, 354, 356 Radiation exposure calculator, 370 Radiation safety officer, 198, 311, 330, 336 Radiation shielding, 347, 378 Radiation survey, 310, 325, 327, 331, 335, 336, 337, 346, 649, 651 Radio frequency (RF), 475, 484, 500 Radiographic camera, 332, 335, 336 Radiographic contrast, 314, 315, 371 Radiographic sensitivity, 314, 370–372 Radiographic shadow formation, 363 Radioisotope, 198, 339, 340, 345, 358, 361, 366 Rare earth element/s, 301, 303 Rayleigh waves, 36, 122, 476, 493 Real-time holography, 137, 140 Refinery alloy comments, 453 Reflection and refraction, 478–481 Reflectivity, 421, 422, 427, 428 Region of interest (ROI), 387, 391, 441, 557 Relative shaft vibration, 541 Relay lenses, 578 Remote-controlled cold-light source, 599 Remote pulsers and preamplifiers, 467–470INDEX 679 Remote magnetic pipe crawlers, 575 Remote visual inspection, 611–626 Repeatability, 143, 387, 418, 420, 432, 471 Research and development, 25, 39, 434, 470 Resistance temperature devices (RTDs), 204, 417–420, 428 Resistance temperature elements (RTEs), 420 Resolving power, 219, 428, 485, 604 Resonance testing, 497 Resonant frequency, 21, 473, 475, 485, 497, 498, 521–524, 526, 536 Restricted area, 331, 332, 335 Retentivity, 87, 264, 274, 275, 278, 279 Reverse flow, 186, 187 Reverse fluorescent, 227 Rigid borescope, 580, 584, 585 Ring light adapter, 605 Robotic crawler units, 623–626 Robotic inspection, 164, 168 Roentgen, William, 338, 347 Rolling element bearing failures, 547 Rotating equipment analysis, 527 Rotor track and balance measurements, 570 Rule base/specific algorithm method, 392 Scanning laser profilometry, 147–149 Self-adhesive strips and indicators, 411 Scintillation detector, 355, 402 Scintillation screen, 385, 389 Search unit construction, 484–489 Seebeck effect, 416, 451, 452 Selective envelope detection (SED), 550, 553 Semiautomatic defect recognition (SADR), 392 Sensor coupling, 21, 23, 26, 47 Shear waves, 57, 122, 123, 476, 478, 487, 490–495, 514, 515, 629 Shearography, 132, 161–168, 644, 645, 658 Shearography camera, 164, 644 Shielding, 80, 88, 289, 317, 332–335, 345–348, 378, 426, 583 Shock pulse generator, 499, 510 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), 79, 80, 84, 88, 111, 162, 460, 461, 643 SilverHawk, 5 Single color change paints, 412 Small-angle neutron scattering instrument (ANS), 316 SnakeEye diagnostic tool, 587, 588 Snell’s law, 480 Sniffer, 184, 192, 193, 195, 212–214, 219 Sound concentrator, 182 Sound level meter (SLM), 525 Source locking mechanism, 336 Source strength, 341, 342, 366, 369 Sources of vibration, 524 Space elevator, 60,000-mile-high, 11, 12 Spatial resolution, 156, 177, 324, 384, 385, 436, 440, 443 Speckle interferogram, 161 Spectral range, 432, 443, 447, 631, 632 Spectrometer efficiency curve, 631, 632 Spectrometer tube, 185–188, 197, 214, 216–218 Spectrum analyzer, 76, 111, 499, 525, 556, 557, 561 Speed and phase signal processing, 574 Speed change, 540 Spherical aberration, 607 SpyGlass lens, 439, 440 Squirter unit, 489, 495, 497, 513 Stability and Decay, 341 Standard radiographic technique, 361 Standard reference blocks, 514, 515 Statue of Liberty, 584 Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 422 Stefan-Boltzmann law, 423 Stereomicroscopes, 594–598 Stereomacroscopes, 594, 595, 599 Sterling-cycle cooling engine, 435, 438 Stiffening, 540, 541 Stiffness, 524, 527–529, 537, 539 Strain gauges, 119, 155, 525, 543 Stress analysis, 120, 525, 529 Stress/strain analysis, 565 Structural integrity, 39, 40, 50, 53, 54, 124, 208 Surface waves, 36, 57, 457, 476, 477, 492–494, 497, 519 Superimposed image comparison, 598 Survey instrument/s, 327, 331, 342, 354, 649 Survey reports, 331, 651680 INDEX Tachometer inputs, 574 Target rods, 340 TEC’s Aviation Products, 567–574 Technique charts, 261, 368–370 Temperature measurement, 207, 409, 410, 420, 424, 426, 427, 438, 442, 654 Temperature sensors with readouts, 416–420 TV camera, 131, 356, 583 TV holography, 136 Tele-zoom viewing, 616 Tenth-value layer (TVL), 348 Testing equipment (UT), 498–518 Test methods (UT), 489–498 TN alloy pro, 357–359 Thermal imager and visible light camera, 440, 441, 442 Thermal imaging, 432, 434–436, 442 Thermal neutron/s, 301, 303, 303, 310–314, 316, 317, 321–324 Thermal radiation, 407, 408, 421–423, 425, 427–429, 439 Thermal stress, 113, 138, 139, 547, 645 Thermal video imaging, 433 Thermochromic flex ink, 415 Thermochromic liquid crystal indicators, 413 Thermocouple sensors, 416, 417 Thermoelectric alloy sorting, 450–456 Thermoluminescent dosimeter, 326, 352–354 Thorium reduction, 408 3D confocal microscopy, 146 3D deformation vector, 564 3D ESPI, 154, 157, 158, 159, 171 3D profiler, 149 Through transmission, 467, 469, 490, 494, 495, 497, 518 Time domain transducers, 457 Time of flight, 457, 458, 463, 473, 627 Time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD), 519, 576, 626, 627, 658 Tool-head camera, 618 Tokamak fusion test reactor (TFTR), 582 Total borescope magnification, 580 Transducers (TOFD), 576 Track-etch neutron imaging method, 312 Tracking analysis, 554 Trained operators, 575 Transducer beam spread, 481 Transfer functions, 528 Translation device, 464 Transmissivity, 421, 422, 427 Trend analysis, 560 Tribology, 147 TRIGA reactor, 307, 308, 323 Tristimulus method, 636 Twin engine propellar balancing, 570 Ultran focused transducer, 463 Ultrasonic analyzer, 510, 511 Ultrasonic leak detector, 180, 183 Ultrasonic noise generator, 182 Ultrasonic wave generation, 476, 477 UV-A, 233, 234, 243, 244 Ultraviolet, 152, 222, 224, 378, 578, 637 Uncooled IR linear array, 442 Underwater periscope, 583 Universal format lens (UFL), 600 Unsharpness, 314, 324, 361, 363, 366, 371, 377 Vacuum stress, 645 Vacuum system, 179, 185–188, 190, 191, 194, 196, 197, 216–218, 220 Valves, 16, 41, 179, 180, 183, 190, 196, 200, 208, 217–220, 577, 587, 589 Variable attenuator, 136, 499, 510 Variables affecting results, 517–519 Velocity, 555, 556 Velocity sensors, 545 VDI Guidance 2056, 541–543 Vibration balancing machines, 555 Vibration damping, 532–534 Vibration excitation, 155, 162, 166, 645 Vibration isolation platform, 537–540 Vibration isolation theory, 537–540 Vibration survey and analysis, 568 Vibrational modes, 137, 141 Vibrotest 60 Version 4, 550–555 Viper 4040, 572–574 Visible dye penetrant processes, 227–229 Visual appearance, 576 Visual testing, 244, 519, 576, 577, 656, 658 Wall thickness measurement, 472 Wall thinning, 472, 577INDEX 681 Wall periscopes, 583 Ward Center, 307–309 Water washable, 221, 224, 226–229, 237, 238 Waterfall analysis, 527 Waterfall plots, 527, 528 Weapons of mass destruction (WMD), 3 Wear-resistance thermocouples, 418 Welding defects, 398–400 Wet developer, 225, 229, 230, 238 Wheel unit (UT), 489, 495, 497, 513 White light interferometry, 135 Wireless technology, 1 Working distance, 146, 147, 156, 158, 566, 594, 599, 601, 604, 605, 608, 611 Working tools, 592 X-ray fluorescence, 356, 358 X-ray generator, 345, 356 Yellow cake, 340 Young’s modulus (stress/strain), 472 Zero-order Bessel function, 140
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