احبتى فى الله
معى اليوم كتاب Pneumatic Drives
System Design, Modelling and Control
Contents
1 Introduction.............................................................................................1
2 Properties of Compressed Air ...............................................................5
2.1 Mathematical Model of Air ..............................................................6
2.2 Atmospheric Air ...............................................................................8
2.3 Definitions Related to Compressed Air ............................................9
3 Thermodynamic Processes...................................................................11
3.1 Constant Volume Processes............................................................11
3.2 Constant Pressure Processes ...........................................................13
3.3 Constant Temperature Processes ....................................................18
3.4 Reversible Processes without Heat Transfer ..................................18
3.5 Polytropic Processes .......................................................................20
3.6 General Processes ...........................................................................22
3.7 Sonic Velocity ................................................................................23
4 Some Results from Fluid Mechanics ...................................................25
4.1 Viscosity .........................................................................................26
4.2 Continuity Equation........................................................................27
4.3 Free Discharge from Nozzles .........................................................28
4.4 Orifice Flow....................................................................................32
4.4.1 Incompressible Flow ...............................................................32
4.3.2 Compressible Flow..................................................................34
4.5 Frictional Flow ...............................................................................36
5 Engineering Flow Rate Calculations...................................................41
5.1 Mathematical Flow Rate Model .....................................................41
5.2 Flow Rate Characteristics of Restrictions.......................................48
5.3 Simplified Flow Calculations .........................................................49
5.4 Flow Capacity Specifications in Data Sheets .................................50
VIII Contents
6 Modelling of Long Lines ......................................................................55
6.1 Steady-State Losses of Long Lines.................................................55
6.1.1 Fluid Mechanics Model ...........................................................57
6.1.2 Empirical Models ....................................................................58
6.1.3 Test Results .............................................................................59
6.2 Steady-State Losses of Fittings.......................................................62
6.3 Time Domain Models .....................................................................65
6.3.1 Derivation of Time Domain Model .........................................65
6.3.2 Test Results in the Time Domain ............................................69
6.4 Frequency Domain Models ............................................................76
7 Electro-Mechanical Converters...........................................................81
7.1 Solenoids ........................................................................................81
7.1.1 Switching Solenoids ................................................................83
7.1.2 Proportional Solenoids ............................................................85
7.1.3 Pulse-Width Modulation .........................................................86
7.2 Voice Coil and Plunger Type Systems ...........................................93
7.3 Piezoelectric Actuators ...................................................................94
7.3.1. Stack Translators ...................................................................94
7.3.2. Benders ...................................................................................94
7.3.3 Piezoelectric Elements in Pneumatic Valves...........................95
8 Cylinders................................................................................................99
8.1 Stroke Cushioning ........................................................................102
8.2 Mathematical Model.....................................................................112
8.3 Cylinder Parameters .....................................................................116
8.3.1 Seal Friction...........................................................................116
8.3.2 Cylinder Leakage...................................................................122
8.3.3 Coefficient of Heat Transfer..................................................123
9 Non-Standard Linear Actuators........................................................127
9.1 Multi-Position and Tandem Cylinders..........................................127
9.2 Rodless Cylinders .........................................................................130
9.2.1 Split-Seal or Slot Type ..........................................................130
9.2.2 Cable Type.............................................................................132
9.2.3 Magnetic Type.......................................................................132
9.3 Bellows .........................................................................................133
9.4 Rolling-Diaphragm Cylinders ......................................................137
9.6 Brake Chambers ...........................................................................139
9.5 Muscle Actuators..........................................................................140
9.6 Impact and Knocking Cylinders ...................................................142
IX
10 Semi-Rotary Actuators.....................................................................145
10.1 Cylinder Based Actuators ...........................................................145
10.2 Vane Type Actuators ..................................................................148
11 Air Motors and Air Turbines ..........................................................151
11.1 Vane Motors ...............................................................................153
11.1.1 Principle of Operation of Vane Motors ...............................154
11.1.2 Mathematical Model............................................................156
11.1.3 Speed Control ......................................................................164
11.2 Air Turbines................................................................................168
12 Directional Control Valves...............................................................171
12.1 Design of Directional Control Valves ........................................173
12.2 Operation of Directional Control Valves....................................175
12.3 Simulation Model of Directional Control Valves.......................181
13 Shut-Off Valves.................................................................................185
13.1 Non-Return Valves .....................................................................185
13.2 Non-Return Valves with Override..............................................188
13.3 Shuttle Valves.............................................................................189
13.4 Twin Pressure Valves .................................................................190
13.5 Quick Exhaust Valves ................................................................191
14 Pressure Control Valves...................................................................193
14.1 Spring Controlled Pressure Regulators.......................................193
14.1.1 Design of Direct Acting Valves...........................................196
14.1.2 Simulation Model of a Pressure Reducing Valves ..............199
14.1.3 Linear model........................................................................202
14.1.4 Non-Linear Effects ..............................................................203
14.1.5 Design of Pilot Operated Valves .........................................205
14.2 Electrically Operated Pressure Regulators .................................207
14.3 Pressure Regulators with Closed-Loop Control .........................209
14.3.1 Reports about Commercial Valves ......................................212
14.4 Pressure Relief Valves................................................................212
14.5 Soft-Start Valves.........................................................................213
15 Flow Control Valves .........................................................................215
15.1 Throttling Valve .........................................................................215
15.2 One-Way Flow Control Valve....................................................216
15.3 Delay Valve ...............15.4 Automatic Shut-Off Valves ........................................................218
Contents
X Contents
16 Proportional Directional Control Valves........................................221
16.1 Design of Proportional Directional Control Valves ...................222
16.2 Operation of Proportional Directional Control Valves...............224
16.3 Simulation Model of Proportional Control Valves.....................230
16.4 Reports about Experimental and Commercial Valves................232
17 Stroke-Time Control ........................................................................235
17.1 Circuits using Quick Exhaust Valves .........................................237
17.2 Meter-Out Control ......................................................................239
17.3 Meter-In Control.........................................................................241
17.4 Circuits using Two Pressures......................................................242
17.5 Oil Cushioning............................................................................244
18 Position Control of Pneumatic Systems ..........................................247
18.1 Mathematical Model for Control System Design .......................249
18.2 Model of Control Valves ............................................................250
18.3 Pressure Dynamics .....................................................................253
18.4 Equation of Motion.....................................................................256
18.5 Control Laws ..............................................................................258
18.5.1 Single Loop Controllers.......................................................259
18.5.2 Additional Loops .................................................................260
18.5.3 State Feedback Control........................................................260
18.5.4 Reconstruction of the Velocity and Acceleration Signal.....263
18.5.5 Non-Linear Control Laws....................................................263
18.6 Performance of a Commercial System.......................................265
19 Control of Actuators for Process Valves.........................................269
19.1 Characteristics of Process Control Systems ...............................271
19.2 Positioners ..................................................................................273
19.2.1 Pneumatic Positioners .........................................................275
19.2.2 Analogue Electro-Pneumatic Positioners ............................276
19.2.3 Digital Positioners ...............................................................277
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