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أخوانى فى الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Industrial and Process Furnaces - Principles, Design and Operation Peter Mullinger Associate Professor, School of Chemical Engineering University of Adelaide, South Australia Barrie Jenkins Consulting Engineer, High Wycombe, Bucks, UK
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Contents Foreword xvii Preface xix Acknowledgements xxi List of Figures xxiii List of Tables xxxi Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 What is a furnace? 3 1.1.1 Furnace outline 4 1.1.2 Furnace classification 5 1.1.3 Principle objectives of furnace designers and operators 5 1.2 Where are furnaces used? Brief review of current furnace applications and technology 7 1.2.1 Ceramics, brick making and pottery 7 1.2.2 Cement and lime 8 1.2.3 Glass making 11 1.2.4 Metal ore smelting 13 1.2.5 Metal refining 16 1.2.6 Flash and fluid bed furnaces 18 1.2.7 Metal physical processing 20 1.2.8 Incinerators and resource recovery furnaces 24 1.2.9 Furnaces with reducing atmospheres 24 1.2.10 Oil refining and petrochemical furnaces 25 1.3 Drivers for improved efficiency 28 1.4 Concluding remarks 29 References 29 Chapter 2 The combustion process 31 2.1 Simple combustion chemistry 32 2.1.1 The complete oxidation of carbon 32 2.1.2 The complete oxidation of hydrogen 32 2.1.3 The incomplete oxidation of carbon 33 2.1.4 The oxidation of carbon monoxide 33 2.2 Combustion calculations 33 2.3 Chemical reaction kinetics 36 2.3.1 Types of reactions 37 2.3.2 Reaction rate theory 38viii Contents 2.3.3 Reaction rate behaviour 40 2.3.4 Burning droplets and particles 43 2.4 The physics of combustion 47 2.4.1 The role of primary air 50 2.4.2 The role of swirl flows 56 2.4.3 Turbulence in jets 57 2.4.4 Secondary flow aerodynamics 59 2.4.5 Effect of excess air on fuel consumption 61 2.4.6 Multiple burner installations 62 Nomenclature 63 References 6 Chapter 3 Fuels for furnaces 67 3.1 Gaseous fuels 69 3.1.1 Properties of natural gas 69 3.1.2 Manufactured gas 69 3.1.3 Wobbe number or index 71 3.1.4 Flammability limits 72 Calculation of the flammable limits for mixtures of gases 72 Influence of temperature and pressure on the limits 73 3.1.5 Flame radiation from gaseous fuels 75 3.2 Liquid fuels 75 3.3 Solid fuels 77 3.3.1 Ash 79 3.4 Waste fuels 79 3.5 Choice of fuel 80 3.5.1 Furnace performance 81 Heat transfer 81 Furnace atmosphere 83 Flexibility of operation 83 Effect of ash 84 Refractory life 84 Fuel cost and security of supply 85 Fuel handling system capital and running costs 85 3.6 Safety 86 3.7 Emissions 86 Nomenclature 86 References 87 Solid fuel bibliography 88 Chapter 4 An introduction to heat transfer in furnaces 89 4.1 Conduction 90 4.1.1 Steady state conduction 914.1.2 Transient conduction 93 Analytical approach 93 Numerical approach 96 4.2 Convection 100 4.2.1 Dimensional analysis 101 4.2.2 Application to convective heat transfer 102 4.2.3 Evaluating convective heat transfer coefficients 104 4.2.4 High temperature convective heat transfer 108 4.3 Radiation 113 4.3.1 Physical basics of radiative exchange 114 4.3.2 Emissivity and absorptivity 117 4.3.3 View factors 121 Equivalent grey surface 126 4.3.4 Mean beam length 127 4.4 Electrical heating 128 4.4.1 Resistance heating 128 Direct resistance heating 129 Indirect resistance heating 129 4.4.2 Arc heating 129 Electrode devices 130 Electrodeless devices 131 4.4.3 Induction heating 132 4.4.4 Dielectric heating 133 4.4.5 Infrared heating 133 Nomenclature 134 References 136 Appendix 4A Tables of emissivity data 137 Chapter 5 Flames and burners for furnaces 141 5.1 Types of flame 142 5.1.1 Premixed flames 143 5.1.2 Turbulent jet diffusion flames 145 5.1.3 Heterogeneous combustion 145 Atomisation of liquid fuels and pulverisation of coal 146 The importance of drop and particle size 148 5.2 Function of a burner and basics of burner design 152 5.2.1 The essential importance of heat flux profiles 154 5.2.2 Flame stabilisation 155 5.3 Gas burners 158 5.3.1 Premixed burners 158 Effect of excess air (mixture ratio) on flame temperature 160 Radiant wall burners 161 Use of premix burners in low NOx applications 162 Safety issues with premix burners 162 Size limitations 165 Contents ixx Contents 5.3.2 Turbulent jet diffusion burners 165 5.3.3 Precessing jet diffusion burners 167 5.4 Oil burners 168 5.4.1 Turndown 171 5.4.2 Atomisers 172 Pressure jet atomisers 173 Twin fluid atomisers 176 5.5 Pulverised coal burners 179 5.6 Furnace aerodynamics 182 Burner and furnace air flow patterns 184 5.6.1 Single burner systems 184 Package burner installations 185 Rotary kilns and driers, etc. 185 5.6.2 Multiple burner systems 186 5.6.3 Combustion air duct design 188 5.6.4 Common windbox and plenum design 192 5.7 Combustion system scaling 193 5.7.1 Example of combustion system scaling 194 5.8 Furnace noise 196 5.8.1 Combustion roar 198 5.8.2 Nozzle and turbulent jet noise 198 5.8.3 Fan noise 199 5.8.4 Pipe and valve noise 199 5.8.5 Furnace noise attenuation 200 5.8.6 Combustion driven oscillations 201 Nomenclature 204 References 205 Chapter 6 Combustion and heat transfer modelling 209 6.1 Physical modelling 211 6.1.1 Thring-Newby parameter 214 6.1.2 Craya-Curtet parameter 214 6.1.3 Becker throttle factor 215 6.1.4 Curtet number 215 6.1.5 Relationship between scaling parameters 216 6.1.6 Determining the required model flows 216 6.1.7 Applying the scaling parameter 216 6.1.8 Applying a post-measurement correction 217 6.2 Mathematical modelling 217 6.2.1 Simple well-stirred furnace models 219 6.2.2 Long furnace models 227 6.2.3 Two- and three-dimensional zone models 229 6.2.4 Computational fluid dynamics models 233 Gridding of CFD models 235 Convergence of CFD models 237 6.2.5 Particle drag in combustion systems 2376.3 Application of modelling to furnace design 238 Nomenclature 239 References 241 Chapter 7 Fuel handling systems 243 7.1 Gas valve trains 244 7.1.1 Safety shutoff systems 245 Double block and bleed 246 Leak testing and proving 246 7.2 Fuel oil handling systems 246 7.2.1 Storage, pumping and heating 247 7.2.2 Oil valve trains 249 7.3 Pulverised coal handling and firing systems 251 7.3.1 Raw coal bunkers and feeders 252 7.3.2 Coal grinding and drying 253 Coal drying characteristics 253 7.3.3 Coal mills 254 Ball mills 255 Vertical spindle mills 257 High speed mills 258 7.3.4 Coal mill grinding capacity 260 Coal fineness 261 Coal dryness 262 7.3.5 Pulverised coal grinding and firing systems 262 Direct and indirect firing systems 262 Direct firing 263 Semi-direct firing 263 Indirect firing 263 Semi-indirect firing 263 7.3.6 Coal system drying capacity 266 7.3.7 Coal firing system fans 270 7.3.8 Fine coal storage 271 7.3.9 Fine coal feeding and conveying 274 Volumetric feeders 275 Mass flow feeders 276 7.3.10 Pulverised coal conveying 278 7.4 Waste fuel handling 280 7.4.1 Waste gas fuel handling 281 7.4.2 Waste liquid fuel handling 282 7.4.3 Solids waste fuel handling 282 Size distribution 282 7.4.4 Environmental benefits and health hazards of waste fuel utilisation 283 Nomenclature 284 References 284 Applicable codes and standards 285 Contents xixii Contents Chapter 8 Furnace control and safety 287 8.1 Process control 288 8.1.1 Basic furnace control strategies 289 Control of product temperature 289 Fuzzy logic and rule-based systems 290 8.2 Furnace instrumentation 290 8.2.1 Temperature measurement 290 8.2.2 Heat input measurement 295 Flow measurement of liquid and gaseous fuels 295 Calorific value measurement 296 Solid fuels 296 8.2.3 Determination of excess air 297 8.3 Flue gas analysis 300 8.3.1 Extractive gas sampling systems and analysers 302 Sample probe installation 302 Cold gas extractive systems 305 Hot wet gas extractive systems 305 Dilution extractive systems 306 8.3.2 In-situ systems 306 Dust monitors 307 Oxygen analysers 308 Cross-duct analysers 309 8.4 Combustion control 312 8.5 Ensuring furnace safety 313 8.5.1 Risk factors in furnace operation 313 8.5.2 Furnace start-up 314 Critical time for ignition during furnace start-up 316 8.5.3 Operation with insufficient combustion air 317 Corrective action for unintentional sub-stoichiometric operation 318 8.5.4 Flame quenching 318 8.5.5 Eliminating ignition sources 319 8.6 Burner management systems 319 8.6.1 Safety requirements for burner management systems 320 8.6.2 False trips 322 8.6.3 Achieving acceptable safety standards with programmable logic controller burner management systems 323 8.6.4 Choosing an appropriate safety integrity level 324 8.6.5 Determining the safety integrity level of the BMS system 326 8.6.6 Flame detectors 329 Nomenclature 332 References 332 Certification and testing organisations 333 Chapter 9 Furnace efficiency 335 9.1 Furnace performance charts 338 9.2 Mass and energy balances 3419.2.1 On-site measurement 342 Flue gas sampling and analysis 344 Calibration and errors in plant instrumentation 345 9.2.2 Constructing mass and energy balances 346 9.3 Energy conversion 358 9.3.1 Low and high grade heat 360 9.3.2 Exergy and pinch point analysis 362 9.4 Heat recovery equipment 363 9.4.1 Recuperative heat exchangers 364 9.4.2 Regenerative heat exchangers 366 9.4.3 General heat exchanger design procedure 368 9.5 Identifying efficiency improvements 369 Nomenclature 372 References 372 Chapter 10 Emissions and environmental impact 375 10.1 Formation of carbon monoxide 377 10.2 Formation of nitrogen oxides 378 10.2.1 Thermal NO x formation 379 10.2.2 Fuel NO x formation 381 10.2.3 Prompt NOx formation 382 10.2.4 NO x modelling 384 10.3 Formation of sulphur oxides 385 10.4 Formation of intermediate combustion products 386 10.4.1 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) 386 10.4.2 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) 386 10.4.3 PCBs, dioxins and furans 387 10.5 Particulate emissions 390 10.5.1 Formation of soot 390 10.5.2 Formation and composition of fuel ash 393 10.5.3 Non-combustible volatile cycles 394 10.6 Environmental control of emissions 396 10.6.1 Prevention and abatement of emissions 397 Pre-flame control 397 In-flame control 399 End-of-pipe control 405 10.6.2 Dispersion modelling 408 References 409 Chapter 11 Furnace construction and materials 413 11.1 Basic performance requirements of the furnace structure 414 11.2 Basic construction methods 415 11.2.1 Brick lining 417 11.2.2 Monolithic linings 419 Castable refractory 419 Contents xiiixiv Contents Traditional installation of castable refractory 420 Installation of castable refractory by gunning 421 Drying and curing of cast and gunned refractory 423 Mouldable and rammable refractories 424 11.2.3 Furnace steelwork 425 11.2.4 Furnace roof construction 426 11.2.5 Furnace cooling systems 428 11.3 Practical engineering considerations in the use of refractories 431 11.4 Ceramic refractory materials 433 11.4.1 Testing of refractories 434 11.4.2 Properties and uses of refractories 435 Silica and siliceous refractories 435 Alumina and aluminous refractories 435 Chromite/magnesite/alumina refractories 436 Dolomite refractories 437 Zircon and zirconia refractories 437 Carbon refractories 438 Insulating refractories 438 11.5 Heat resisting and refractory metals 438 11.5.1 Effect of elevated temperature on metal properties 439 11.5.2 High temperature alloys 441 Service temperature 442 Intergranular corrosion 442 Proprietary high nickel alloys 443 11.6 Practical engineering considerations in the use of high temperature metals 443 11.7 Concluding remarks 444 References 445 Selection of relevant standards 445 Advisory organisations 446 Appendix 11A General properties of selected refractory materials 447 Chapter 12 Furnace design methods 455 12.1 Introduction 456 12.1.1 Design constraints 458 12.1.2 Cost of design changes 459 12.2 Conceptual design 459 12.2.1 Process functions 460 Straight-through furnace system 464 Separation furnace system 464 Combining furnace with downstream separation 464 Combining and separation furnace system 464 12.2.2 Defining the physical and chemical changes 464 12.2.3 Preliminary mass and energy balances 46612.2.4 Reliability of available process knowledge 466 Existing processes 467 New processes and pilot plants 467 12.2.5 Effect of upstream and downstream processes 468 12.2.6 Fuel choice 469 Fuel chemical compatibility with the process 470 Heat transfer compatibility with the process 472 12.2.7 Potential for heat recovery and choice of equipment 474 Estimating the potential for heat recovery from hot product 475 Estimating the potential for heat recovery from hot flue gas 476 Estimating the potential for heat recovery from shell losses or cooling water 478 Economic considerations 479 12.3 Furnace sizing 479 Slab heating furnace design 487 Oil heating furnace design 489 Aggregate processing furnace 492 12.4 Burner selection 496 12.5 Detailed analysis and validation of the furnace design 500 12.6 Furnace instrumentation and controls 501 Nomenclature 503 References 504 Author index 507 Subject index
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