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أخوانى فى الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Advanced Electrical and Electronics Materials Processes and Applications من سلسلة علم المواد المتقدمة Advanced Material Series K.M. Gupta and Nishu Gupt
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Contents Preface xxxv Acknowledgement xxxvii About the Authors xxxix Abbreviations xli 1 General Introduction to Electrical and Electronic Materials 1 1.1 Importance of Materials 1 1.2 Importance of Electrical and Electronic Materials 2 1.3 Classifcation of Electrical and Electronic Materials 3 1.3.1 Conductors 4 1.3.2 Semiconductors 4 1.3.3 Dielectrics 5 1.3.4 Superconductors 6 1.3.5 Magnetic Materials 7 1.3.6 Ferrites 7 1.3.7 Ferroelectrics 8 1.3.8 Piezoelectrics 8 1.3.9 Perovskites (Titanates, Zirconates, Hafnates) 8 1.3.10 Spinels, Garnets, and Magnetoplumbite 9 1.4 Scope of Electrical and Electronic Materials 9 1.5 Requirements of Engineering Materials 11 1.6 Operational Requirements of Electrical and Electronic Materials 13 1.6.1 High and Low Temperature (Service) Materials 14 1.6.2 High Voltage (Service) Materials 14 1.7 Classifcation of Solids on the Basis of Energy Gap 15 1.7.1 Energy Gap for Di?erent Solids 16viii Contents 1.7.2 Comparison among Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators 17 1.8 Glimpse of Some Electronic Products, Teir Working Principles and Choicest Materials 18 1.9 Di?erent Types of Engineering Materials 19 1.9.1 Metals 19 1.9.2 Non-Ferrous Metals 19 1.9.3 Ceramics 19 1.9.4 Organic Polymers 20 1.9.5 Alloys 20 1.9.6 Composites 21 1.10 Di?erent Levels of Materials Structure 21 1.10.1 Micro-Structure Levels 21 1.10.2 Dimensional Range and Examples 22 1.11 Spintronics (Te Electronics of Tomorrow) and Spintronic Materials 22 1.11.1 Major Fields of Spintronic Research 23 1.11.2 Operational Mechanisms of Spintronic Devices 23 1.11.3 Working Principle of Spintronic Devices 24 1.11.4 Emerging and Futuristic Spintronic Materials 24 1.12 Ferromagnetic Semiconductor 24 1.12.1 Emerging Wide Bandgap Semiconductors 25 1.13 Lef-Handed (LH) Materials 26 1.14 Solved Examples 27 Review Questions 29 Objective Questions 30 2 Atomic Models, Bonding in Solids, Crystal Geometry, and Miller Indices 33 2.1 Atomic Models 33 2.2 Bohr’s Quantum Atomic Model 33 2.2.1 Radii of Orbits, Velocity and Frequency of Electrons 35 2.2.2 Normal, Excited and Ionized Atoms 36 2.2.3 Kinetic and Potential Energy of Electron 36 2.3 Modern Concept of Atomic Model 37 2.3.1 De Broglie Wave 37 2.3.2 Wavelength of Electron Wave 37 2.3.3 Concept of Standing Wave 38Contents ix 2.4 Electron Confguration 39 2.5 Meaning of Chemical (or Atomic) Bonding 40 2.6 Classifcation of Chemical Bonds 40 2.7 Ionic Bond 41 2.8 Covalent Bonds 42 2.8.1 Types of Covalent Bonds 42 2.8.2 Bond Angle 43 2.8.3 Directional and Non-Directional Bonds 44 2.8.4 Mixed bonds 44 2.9 Monocrystalline and Polycrystalline Crystal Structures 45 2.9.1 Construction of a solid 45 2.10 Space Lattice 46 2.11 Basis 46 2.12 Unit Cell and Crystal 47 2.13 Bravais Crystal System 48 2.14 Primitive and Non-Primitive Unit Cells 51 2.15 Coordination Number 52 2.16 Atomic Packing Fraction 52 2.17 Calculation of Density (or Bulk Density) 55 2.18 Miller Indices 55 2.18.1 Determining the Miller Indices of a Given Plane 56 2.18.2 Drawing a Plane Whose Miller Indices are Given 58 2.18.3 Drawing a Plane which is Parallel to an Axis 58 2.18.4 Planes with Negative Indices 59 2.18.5 Family of Planes 59 2.18.6 Miller Indices: Crystallographic Notation of Atomic Crystal Directions 60 2.19 Interplaner Spacing 61 2.20 Linear Density 62 2.21 Planer Density 63 2.21.1 Planer Density in Face Centred Cube (FCC) on (100) Plane 63 2.21.2 Planer Density in FCC on (110) Plane 63 2.21.3 Planer Density in FCC on (111) Plane 64 Quick Revision Summary 64 Review Questions 64x Contents Numerical Questions 66 Objective Questions 69 3 Solid Structures, Characterization of Materials, Crystal Imperfections, and Mechanical Properties of Materials 71 3.1 Crystallography 71 3.2 Crystalline and Non-Crystalline Structures 72 3.3 Hexagonally Closed Packed Structure (HCP) 73 3.4 VOIDS 74 3.4.1 Tetrahedral Voids 74 3.4.2 Octahedral Void 74 3.5 Covalent Solids 75 3.5.1 Diamond Cubic (DC) Structure 75 3.6 Bragg’s Law of X-Rays Di?raction 76 3.6.1 Bragg’s Equation 77 3.6.2 Re?ections from Various Sets 78 3.7 Structure Determination 78 3.8 Microscopy 79 3.8.1 Microscopic Principle 80 3.8.2 Ray Diagram and Principle of Magnifcation 81 3.8.3 Magnifying Power of Microscope 82 3.9 Di?erent Types of Metallurgical Microscopes and Teir Features 82 3.10 Working Principle of Electron Microscope 84 3.10.1 Formation of Magnifed Image 84 CRYSTAL IMPERFECTIONS 85 3.11 Ideal and Real Crystals, and Imperfections 85 3.11.1 Disadvantageous E?ects of Imperfections 85 3.11.2 Advantageous E?ect of Imperfection 86 3.12 Classifcation of Imperfections 86 3.13 Point Imperfections 87 3.13.1 Vacancy 87 3.13.2 Substitutional Impurity 87 3.13.3 Interstitial Impurity 88 3.13.4 Frenkel’s Defect 88 3.13.5 Schottky’s Defect 89 3.14 E?ects of Point Imperfections 89 3.15 Line Imperfections 90Contents xi 3.16 Features of Edge Dislocation 90 3.17 Screw Dislocation 90 3.17.1 Stress-Strain Field in Screw Dislocation 90 3.18 Characteristics of Dislocations 92 3.18.1 Burgers Vectors of Dislocations in Cubic Crystals 93 3.19 Sources of Dislocations, Teir E?ects and Remedies 93 3.19.1 E?ects of Dislocations 94 3.19.2 Remedies to Minimize the Dislocations 94 3.20 Grain Boundary 95 3.20.1 Mechanism of grain boundary formation 95 3.21 Twin or Twinning 96 3.21.1 Annealing Twin and Deformation Twin 96 3.22 Mechanical Properties of Metals 97 3.22.1 Isotropic Anisotropic and Orthotropic Materials 97 3.22.2 Homogeneity and Heterogeneity 97 3.22.3 Strain Energy Absorbed by the Materials 98 3.22.4 Strength 99 3.22.5 Sti?ness 100 3.22.6 Resilience, Proof Resilience and Toughness 100 3.22.7 Elasticity and Plasticity 101 3.22.8 Ductility and Brittleness 101 3.22.9 Malleability 103 3.22.10 Fatigue 103 3.22.11 Creep 103 3.22.12 Need of Di?erent Properties for Di?erent Applications 104 3.22.13 Hardness 104 3.22.14 Impact 104 3.22.15 Factors A?ecting Mechanical Properties 104 Review Questions 105 Numerical Problems 108 4 Conductive Materials: Electron Teories, Properties and Behaviour 109 4.1 Electrons and Teir Role in Conductivity 109 4.1.1 Valence and Free Electrons 109 4.2 Electron Teories of Solids 110xii Contents 4.3 Free Electron Teory 110 4.3.1 Kinetic Energy in Terms of Wave Number 111 4.3.2 Kinetic Energy in Terms of Length of the Solid 112 4.3.3 Energy Equation for 3-Dimensional Solid 113 4.3.4 Mechanism of Conduction by Free Electrons 114 4.3.5 Drif Velocity and Collision Time 115 4.3.6 Mean Free Path (or Mean Free Length) 117 4.3.7 E?ect of Temperature on Mean Free Path 117 4.4 Energy Band Teory 118 4.4.1 Critical Conditions 119 4.4.2 Magnitude of Energy Gap 120 4.5 Brillouin Zone Teory 120 4.5.1 Meaning of Di?erent Brillouin Zones 121 4.5.2 First and Second Brillouin Zones 122 4.5.3 Brillouin Zones for Simple Cubic Lattice 123 4.5.4 Brillouin Zones for BCC, FCC and HCP Lattices 124 4.6 Conductors 125 4.6.1 Characteristics of a Good Conductor 126 4.7 Factors A?ecting Conductivity (and Resistivity) of Metals 126 4.7.1 Temperature E?ect on Conductivity 127 4.7.2 Nordheim Equation for Impurity and Alloying E?ects on Resistivity 129 4.7.3 E?ect of Plastic Deformation and Cold Working 129 4.7.4 Matthilseen Rule of Total Resistivity 129 4.8 Termal Conductivity 130 4.8.1 Salient Features of Di?erent Materials Regarding Termal Conductivity 131 4.9 Heating E?ect of Current 132 4.9.1 Joule’s Law of Electrical Heating 132 4.9.2 Applications of Heating E?ect 133 4.10 Termoelectric E?ect (or Termoelectricity) 133 4.11 Seebeck E?ect 134 4.11.1 Seebeck Series 134 4.11.2 Seebeck e.m.f. 135 4.11.3 Applications of Termoelectric E?ect 136 4.12 Peltier E?ect 136 4.12.1 Peltier Coefcient 136Contents xiii 4.13 Tomson E?ect 137 4.13.1 Types of Materials on the Basis of Tomson E?ect 138 4.13.2 Materials for Termocouples and Termopiles 138 4.14 Wiedemann-Franz Law and Lorentz Relation 138 4.14.1 Determining the Termal Conductivity 139 4.14.2 Consideration of Electron Collision 140 4.14.3 Consideration of Fermi Energy 141 4.14.4 Lorentz Number 142 4.15 Solved Examples 143 Quick Revision Summary 146 Review Questions 147 Numerical Problems 149 Objective Questions 151 True and False Type Questions 151 Fill in the Blank Type Questions 152 Multiple Choice Type Questions 152 5 Conductive Materials: Types and Applications 153 5.1 Mechanically Processed Forms of Electrical Materials 153 5.1.1 Cladded Metals 153 5.1.2 Bimetals 153 5.1.3 Sintered Materials 154 5.1.4 Hot Rolled and Cold Rolled Metals 154 5.1.5 Hard Drawn and Sof Drawn Metals 154 5.1.6 Annealed Metals 155 5.2 Types of Conducting Materials 155 5.3 Low Resistivity Materials 156 5.3.1 Characteristics of Low Resistivity Materials 156 5.3.2 Copper and its Types 157 5.3.3 Types of Aluminium and their Applications 158 5.3.4 Comparison among Di?erent Low Resistivity Conducting Materials 160 5.3.5 Copper Alloys (Brass and Bronze) 160 5.4 High Resistivity Materials 161 5.4.1 Characteristics of High Resistivity Materials 163 5.4.2 Nickel 163xiv Contents 5.4.3 Tantalum 164 5.4.4 High Resistivity Alloys 164 5.4.5 Salient Applications of High Resistivity Materials 164 5.5 Contact Materials 165 5.5.1 Requirements of a Good Contact Material 166 5.5.2 Types of Contact Materials 166 5.5.3 Common Contact Metals 168 5.5.4 Salient Applications of Contact Materials 169 5.6 Fusible (or Fuse) Materials 170 5.6.1 Requirements of Fuse Materials 170 5.6.2 Fusible Metals and Alloys 171 5.7 Filament Materials 172 5.7.1 Requirements of a Good Filament Material 172 5.7.2 Tungsten Filament 172 5.8 Carbon As Filamentary and Brush Material 173 5.8.1 Carbon Graphite 174 5.8.2 Main Applications of Carbon Materials 174 5.9 Conductors, Cables, and Wires: Types and Materials 175 5.9.1 Stranded Conductors 176 5.9.2 Types of Stranded Conductors 176 5.9.3 Specifcations of Stranded Conductors 177 5.9.4 Core Cable 177 5.9.5 Reinforced Conductor 178 5.10 Solder Materials for Joining Wires and Joints in Power Apparatuses 178 5.10.1 Sof Solder 178 5.10.2 Hard Solder 178 5.11 Sheathing Materials 179 5.12 Sealing Materials 180 5.13 Solved Examples 180 Review Questions 181 Objective Questions 183 6 Semiconducting Materials: Properties and Behaviour 185 6.1 Introduction to Semiconductors 185 6.1.1 Properties of Semiconductors 186 6.2 Di?erent Types of Semiconducting Materials 186 6.2.1 Merits of Semiconducting Materials 186 6.2.2 Characteristics of Semiconducting Materials 187Contents xv 6.3 Determining the Percentage Ionic Character of Compound Semiconductor 188 6.4 Fermi Energy Level 189 6.4.1 Fermi-Dirac Probability Function and Temperature E?ect 189 6.5 Intrinsic Semiconductors 191 6.5.1 Energy Diagram of Intrinsic Semiconductor 192 6.5.2 Holes, Mobility and Conductivity 193 6.6 Extrinsic Semiconductors 194 6.6.1 n-Type Semiconductors and their Energy Diagram 194 6.6.2 Law of Mass Action 195 6.6.3 p-Type Semiconductors and their Energy Diagram 195 6.7 E?ective Mass 199 6.8 Density of State 200 6.9 Temperature Dependency of Carrier Concentrations 202 6.9.1 Temperature Dependency of ni 204 6.10 E?ects of Temperature on Mobility of Carriers 205 6.10.1 E?ects of Doping on Mobility 206 6.11 Direct and Indirect Energy Band Semiconductors 206 6.11.1 Di?erences between Direct and Indirect Semiconductors 208 6.12 Variation of E g with Alloy Composition 208 6.12.1 E?ect of Alloying on GaAs1-xPx 209 6.12.2 Applications 210 6.13 Degenerate Semiconductors 210 6.13.1 E?ect of Heavy Doping 211 6.13.2 Degenerate Types 211 6.14 Hall E?ect 212 6.14.1 Explanation of the Phenomenon 213 6.14.2 Hall Voltage 213 6.14.3 Signifcance of Hall E?ect, Hall Coefcient etc. 214 6.15 Analysis of Drif and Di?usion Currents 216 6.15.1 Einstein Relation 217 6.16 Continuity Equation 218 6.17 Solved Examples 219 Quick Revision Summary 223 Review Questions 224xvi Contents Numerical Problems 225 Objective Type Questions 226 7 Semiconducting Materials: Types and Applications 229 7.1 Element Form Semiconducting Materials 229 7.1.1 Silicon 229 7.1.2 Germanium 230 7.1.3 Selenium (Se) 231 7.1.4 Antimony (Sb) 231 7.1.5 Other Elements 231 7.1.6 Comparison between Silicon and Germanium 232 7.2 Formulated (Compound and Alloyed) Semiconducting Materials 232 7.2.1 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) 232 7.2.2 Indium Antimonide (InSb) 234 7.2.3 Oxides, Sulphides, Halides, Tellurides and Sellurides 234 7.2.4 Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) 234 7.2.5 Silicon Carbide (SiC) 235 7.2.6 Lead Sulphide (PbS) 235 7.3 Lattice Structures of Some Compound Semiconductors 235 7.3.1 Structure of Zinc Sulphide 237 7.4 Solar Cells 237 7.4.1 Working Principle 238 7.4.2 Construction and Working 238 7.4.3 Factors A?ecting the Ef ciency of Solar Cells 239 7.4.4 Solar Cell Fabrication and Materials 240 7.4.5 Advantages and Limitations of Solar Cells 241 7.4.6 Applications of Solar Cells 242 7.5 Semiconductor Lasers 242 7.5.1 Merits of Semiconductor Lasers 243 7.5.2 Characteristics and Working 243 7.5.3 Laser Applications 243 7.5.4 Materials for Semiconductor Lasers 245 7.6 Optical Materials in Light Emitting Diodes 247 7.6.1 Construction and Working of LED 247 7.6.2 Advantages, Applications and Specifcations of LEDs 247Contents xvii 7.6.3 Applications and Specif cations of LEDs 248 7.6.4 Light Emitting Materials 248 7.7 Materials for Optical Fibres 249 7.7.1 Construction 250 7.7.2 Types of Optical Fibres 250 7.7.3 Suitable Materials and their Requirements 251 7.7.4 Advantages and Applications 252 7.7.5 Applications of Optical Fibres 252 7.8 Choicest Materials for Di? erent Semiconductor Devices 253 7.9 Solved Examples 254 Quick Revision Summary 257 Review Questions 258 Objective Questions 259 8 Semiconducting Materials: Processing and Devices 263 8.1 Production of Element Form Of Silicon (Si) 263 8.2 Semiconductor Crystal Growth 264 8.2.1 Bridgman Method 264 8.2.2 Czochralski Method 265 8.3 Processing of Semiconducting Materials 266 8.4 Zone Refning 266 8.4.1 Zone Refning Apparatus 268 8.5 Manufacturing of Wafers 268 8.5.1 Photolithography 269 8.6 Semiconductors Fabrication Technology 269 8.6.1 Microelectronic Circuit Construction 270 8.6.2 Tin Film Circuit Fabrication 270 8.7 Fabrication of a Semiconductor P-N Junction 271 8.8 Transistor Manufacturing Processes 271 8.9 Semiconducting Devices and Teir Operating Principle 271 8.10 Important Applications of Semiconductor Devices 274 8.11 Brief Description of Some Semiconductor Devices 275 8.12 P-N Junction Diode 276 8.12.1 Applications of P-N Diode 277 8.12.2 Biasing 277 8.13 Working of P-N Diode When not Connected to a Battery 279 8.13.1 Di?usion of Holes and Electrons in P-N Diode 279xviii Contents 8.13.2 Set-up of Barrier in P-N Diode 279 8.13.3 Formation of Depletion (or Space Charge) Region in P-N Diode 279 8.13.4 Flow of Drif and Di?usion Current in P-N Diode 280 8.14 Di?erent Types of P-N Junction Diodes 280 8.14.1 Te Gunn Diode Materials and Fabrication 281 8.15 Junction Transistors 281 8.15.1 Di?erent Categories of Transistors 282 8.16 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) 282 8.16.1 Construction of BJT 282 8.17 Field-E?ect Transistor (FET) 285 8.17.1 Advantages of FETs over BJTs 285 8.17.2 Di?erences between FETs and BJTs 285 8.17.3 Applications of FETs 285 8.18 Metal-Semiconductor Field-E?ect Transistors (MESFET) 286 8.18.1 Basic Construction of MESFETs 286 8.18.2 Basic Types of MESFETs 287 8.19 Insulated Gate Field E?ect Transistor (IGFET) or Metal-Insulator-Semiconductor Field-E?ect Transistor (MISFET) 288 8.19.1 Construction of IGFET 289 8.20 Charge Coupled Devices 289 8.20.1 Salient Uses 290 8.21 Solved Examples 290 Quick Revision Summary 294 Review Questions 296 Objective Questions 298 9 Dielectric Materials: Properties and Behaviour 301 9.1 Introduction to Dielectric Materials 301 9.2 Classifcation of Dielectric (or Insulating) Materials 302 9.3 Main Properties 304 9.4 Dielectric Constant 304 9.4.1 Factors A?ecting Dielectric Constant 304 9.5 Dielectric Strength 305 9.5.1 Types of Dielectric Breakdown 305Contents xix 9.6 Dielectric Loss 307 9.6.1 Factors A?ecting Dielectric Loss 308 9.6.2 Calculation of Loss Factor 309 9.7 Polarization 310 9.7.1 Expression for Polarization under Static Electric Field 311 9.7.2 Measurement of Polarization 311 9.8 Mechanism of Polarization 314 9.8.1 Electronic Polarization 314 9.8.2 Ionic Polarization 315 9.8.3 Orientation (Molecular) Polarization 315 9.8.4 Space Charge (or Interfacial) Polarization 315 9.9 Comparison of Di?erent Polarization Processes 316 9.9.1 Polarizability 316 9.10 Factors A?ecting Polarization 317 9.10.1 Time E?ects and Relaxation Time 317 9.10.2 Frequency E?ects 318 9.11 Spontaneous Polarization 318 9.11.1 Polarization Curve 319 9.11.2 Polarization Hysteresis Loop 320 9.11.3 Salient Features of Spontaneous Polarization 320 9.12 Behaviour of Polarization Under Impulse and Frequency Switching 320 9.12.1 E?ect on Polarization When Electric Field is Switched-o? 321 9.12.2 E?ect on Polarization When Electric Field is Switched-on 322 9.13 Decay and Build-Up of Polarization Under Alternating Current (A.C.) Field 322 9.13.1 Conclusion 324 9.14 Complex Dielectric Constant 324 9.15 Determining the Internal Field Due to Polarization Inside the Dielectric 325 9.15.1 Formulation of the Problem for Solid Dielectric 325 9.15.2 Contribution of Dipoles on Internal Field 327 9.15.3 Determining Ei for 3-dimensional Case and Lorentz Expression 327xx Contents 9.16 Clausius-Mossotti Relation 329 9.16.1 Relation between Electronic Polarizability and Polarization 329 9.17 Solved Examples 332 Quick Revision Summary 337 Review Questions 338 Numerical Problems 339 Objective Questions 340 10 Dielectric Materials: Types and Applications 343 10.1 Solid Insulating Materials and their Applications 343 10.1.1 Ceramic Insulating Materials 344 10.1.2 Mica 344 10.1.3 Porcelain 346 10.1.4 Glass 346 10.1.5 Micanite 347 10.1.6 Glass Bonded Mica 348 10.2 Polymeric Insulating Materials 348 10.2.1 Bakelite 349 10.2.2 Polyethylene 350 10.3 Natural and Synthetic Rubber as Insulating Material 350 10.3.1 Synthetic Rubber 350 10.4 Paper as a Fibrous Insulating Material 351 10.5 Choices of Solid Insulating Materials for Di?erent Applications 351 10.6 Liquid Insulating Materials 354 10.6.1 Requirements of a Good Insulating Liquid 354 10.6.2 Transformer Oil 354 10.6.3 Bubble Teory for Breakdown of Liquid Insulation 355 10.6.4 Ageing of Mineral Insulating Oils 355 10.7 Gaseous Insulating Materials 356 10.7.1 Air 356 10.7.2 Nitrogen 357 10.7.3 Vacuum 357 10.7.4 Vacuum as Re?ective Insulation 358 10.8 Ferroelectric Materials 358 10.8.1 Anti-Ferroelectric Materials 359Contents xxi 10.9 Barium Titanate: A Ferroelectric Ceramic 359 10.9.1 E?ect of Temperature on Structure of BaTiO3 360 10.10 Modifed Barium Titanate 361 10.11 PLZT as an Electro-Optic Material 362 10.12 Piezoelectricity 363 10.12.1 Characteristics and Uses 363 10.12.2 Mechanism of Piezoelectricity 364 10.12.3 Inverse Piezoelectric E?ect 364 10.12.4 Piezoelectric Materials 365 10.12.5 E?ect of Temperature on Piezoelectric Crystal 365 10.13 Piezoelectrics in Transducer Uses 366 10.13.1 Working of Piezoelectric Transducer 366 10.14 Relation Between Young’s Modulus and Electric Field in Piezoelectric Material 367 10.15 Electrostriction 370 10.16 Pyroelectricity 370 10.16.1 Pyroelectric E?ect 371 10.16.2 Pyroelectric Coefcient 371 10.16.3 Pyroelectric Devices 371 10.17 Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT): A Piezoelectric Ceramic 372 10.17.1 Di?erent Types of PZTs and Teir Uses 372 10.18 Lead Lanthanum Zirconate Titanate (PLZT) 373 10.18.1 General Formula and Hysteresis Loop of PLZT 373 10.19 Solved Examples 374 Quick Revision Summary 375 Review Questions 376 Numerical Problems 377 Objective Questions 378 11 Magnetic Materials: Properties and Behaviour 379 11.1 Origin of Permanent Magnetic Dipole 379 11.1.1 Spinning Electrons Acting as Extremely Small Magnets 379 11.2 Terminologies Defned 380 11.2.1 Relation between Relative Permeability and Magnetic Susceptibility 382xxii Contents 11.3 Classifcation of Magnetic Materials 384 11.3.1 Distribution of Magnetic Moments 385 11.4 Diamagnetism and Diamagnetic Materials 386 11.4.1 Negative Susceptibility 386 11.5 Paramagnetism and Paramagnetic Materials 386 11.5.1 Rare-earth Based Paramagnetic Salts 387 11.6 Ferromagnetism and Ferromagnetic Materials 387 11.7 Antiferromagnetism and Antiferromagnetic Materials 387 11.7.1 Maximum Susceptibility and Neel Temperature 388 11.8 Ferrimagnetism and Ferrites 389 11.8.1 Properties of Ferrites 389 11.8.2 Applications of Ferrites 389 11.8.3 Sof and Hard Ferrites 390 11.8.4 Spinel, Garnet and Magnetoplumbite 390 11.8.5 Normal and Inverse Spinel 391 11.8.6 Garnets 391 11.8.7 Ferrites in Memory Devices 391 11.9 Curie Temperature 392 11.9.1 Requirement of Higher and Lower Curie Temperature for Di?erent Applications 393 11.10 Laws of Magnetic Materials 394 11.10.1 E?ect of Temperature on Magnetic Susceptibility 395 11.11 Magnetization Curve, and Initial and Maximum Permeability 395 11.11.1 Magnetic Hysteresis Loop (or Cycle Magnetization) 396 11.12 Hysteresis and Eddy Current Losses 398 11.12.1 Eddy Current Loss per Unit Volume 398 11.13 Domain Teory 401 11.14 Magnetostriction 402 11.14.1 Salient Features of Magnetostriction 402 11.14.2 Mechanism of Magnetostriction 403 11.14.3 Magnetostrictive Materials 403 11.15 Ferromagnetic Anisotropy 404 11.15.1 Anisotropy in Single Crystal 405 11.15.2 Sof and Hard Directions 405 11.15.3 Methods of Inducing Magnetic Anisotropy 405Contents xxiii 11.16 Domain Growth and Domain Wall Rotation 406 11.17 Derivation of Langevin’s T eory of Diamagnetism and Expression For Diamagnetic Susceptibility 407 11.17.1 Larmor Precession 408 11.17.2 Determining the Diamagnetic Susceptibility 409 11.18 Derivation of Langevin’s T eory of Paramagnetism and Expression for Paramagnetic Susceptibility 410 11.18.1 Determining the Intensity of Magnetization 410 11.18.3 Determining the Paramagnetic Susceptibility 411 11.19 Solved Examples 412 Quick Revision Summary 413 Review Questions 415 Numerical Problems 417 Objective Questions 419 12 Magnetic Materials: Types and Applications 423 12.1 Types of Magnetic Materials 423 12.2 Magnetic Materials 424 12.3 Sof Magnetic Materials 425 12.3.1 Transformer Purpose Sheet Form Magnetic Material 425 12.3.2 Powder Form Magnetic Material 425 12.4 Hard Magnetic Materials 426 12.4.1 Sof Magnetic Materials Versus Hard Magnetic Materials 427 12.5 High Energy (Product) Hard Magnetic Materials (HEHMMs) 428 12.5.1 Samarium-Cobalt Rare Earth 428 12.5.2 Neodymium-Iron-Boron Alloy 429 12.6 Commercial Grade Sof Magnetic Materials 430 12.7 Commercial Grade Hard Magnetic Materials 431 12.8 Ferrites in Memory Devices 433 12.9 Magnetic Storage 434 12.9.1 Magnetic Tapes and Films 435 12.10 Metallic Glasses 435 12.10.1 Interesting Amorphous Material 435 12.10.2 Unusual Properties of Metallic Glasses 436 12.10.3 Fabrication of Metallic Glass 436xxiv Contents 12.10.4 Materials System and Salient Applications of Metallic Glasses 438 12.10.5 Applications 438 12.10.6 Metallic Glasses in Electronic Uses 438 12.11 Magnetic Bubbles 439 12.11.1 Working Principle 439 12.11.2 Moving the Magnetic Bubble 440 12.11.3 Information Storage Density 441 12.12 E?ects of Alloying Elements on Magnetic Properties 441 12.13 Textured Magnetic Materials 441 12.14 Amorphous (or Oxide) Magnetic Materials 442 12.15 Powder Magnetic Materials 442 12.16 Solved Examples 442 Quick Revision Summary 443 Review Questions 445 Objective Questions 446 13 Superconductive Materials 449 13.1 Concept of Superconductors 449 13.1.1 Meaning of the Phenomenon of Superconductivity 449 13.2 Properties of Superconductors 450 13.2.1 Meissner E?ect 450 13.3 Types of Superconductors 453 13.3.1 E?ect of Pressure and Temperature on Superconductivity 453 13.4 Critical Magnetic Field and Critical Temperature 454 13.4.1 E?ect of Isotopic Mass on Critical Temperature 454 13.4.2 Silsbee Rule 455 13.4.3 Important Terminologies 456 13.5 Ideal and Hard Superconductors 456 13.6 Mechanism of Superconduction 456 13.6.1 Various Teories of Superconductivity 457 13.7 London’s Teory For Type I Superconductors 457 13.8 GLAG Teory For Type II Superconductors 458 13.8.1 Distinguishing Between the Type I and Type II Superconductors 458 13.8.2 Variation of Magnetic Field 459Contents xxv 13.9 BCS Teory 460 13.9.1 Supercurrent 460 13.9.2 Phonon and Photon 460 13.9.3 Electron-Phonon Interaction 461 13.9.4 Reason of Two Electrons Forming a Pair 461 13.9.5 Cause of Resistance for Superconductor being Zero 461 13.9.6 Relationship between Coherence Length and Energy Gap 462 13.9.7 Debye Temperature 462 13.10 Current Applications and Limitations 464 13.10.1 Limitations of Superconductors 464 13.10.2 Likely Futuristic Scenario 464 13.11 Milestones in Research and Development of Superconductors 465 13.11.1 Modern Ceramic Superconductors 466 13.12 Present Scenario of the Main Applications of High Temperature Superconductors 467 13.13 Producing the Superconducting Solenoids and Magnets 468 13.14 MRI for Medical Diagnostics 469 13.14.1 Magnet as a Critical Component 469 13.14.2 Superconducting Magnet 469 13.15 Solved Examples 470 Quick Revision Summary 472 Review Questions 472 Numerical Problems 473 Objective Questions 473 14 Passive Components (Resistors) 477 14.1 Passive and Active Components 477 14.2 Introduction to Resistors 478 14.2.1 Characteristics of Resistors 479 14.3 Manufacturing Method of a Resistor 481 14.4 Basic Classifcation of Resistors 482 14.4.1 Specifc Types of Resistors 483 14.4.2 Di?erent Types of Resistors: Materials and Applications 484xxvi Contents 14.5 Constructional Details of Di?erent Kinds of Fixed Resistors 484 14.5.1 Construction of Carbon Composition Resistor 484 14.5.2 Construction of Carbon Film Resistor 485 14.5.3 Construction of Metal Film Resistors 486 14.5.4 Construction of Wire-Wound Resistor 487 14.5.5 Construction of Circuit Breaker Resistors 488 14.5.6 Construction of High Value Resistors 489 14.6 Comparison Among Di?erent Types of Fixed Resistors 490 14.7 Specifcations of Resistors 490 14.7.1 Symbolic Representation of Resistors 491 14.7.2 Identifcation of Resistors 491 14.8 Variable Resistors (i.e. Varistors) 493 14.8.1 Carbon Composition Variable Resistor 493 14.8.2 Wire Wound Variable Resistor 494 14.8.3 Cermets Type Variable Resistor 494 14.8.4 Characteristics of Variable Resistors 494 14.9 Non-Linear Resistors 495 14.10 Termistors 496 14.10.1 NTC Termistors 496 14.10.2 PTC Termistors 497 14.10.3 Applications of Termistors 497 14.10.4 Specifcations of Termistors 498 14.11 Solved Examples 498 Review Questions 500 15 Passive Components (Capacitors) 503 15.1 Capacitor: an Introduction 503 15.1.1 Equivalent Circuit 504 15.1.2 Major Applications of Capacitors 505 15.1.3 Important Materials Used for Capacitors 505 15.2 Characteristics of Capacitors 506 15.3 Classifcation of Capacitors 508 15.4 Forms and Materials of Common Types of Capacitors 509 15.5 Constructional Details of Fixed Value Capacitors 510 15.5.1 Mica Dielectric Capacitor 510 15.5.2 Paper Capacitor 511Contents xxvii 15.6 Plastic Film Capacitors 512 15.6.1 Metalized Plastic Film Dielectric Capacitors 512 15.6.2 Foil and Plastic Film Capacitors 513 15.6.3 Mixed Dielectric Capacitors 513 15.7 Ceramic Dielectric Capacitors 514 15.7.1 Classes of Ceramic Dielectrics 514 15.7.2 Applications 515 15.8 Electrolytic Capacitors 516 15.8.1 Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitor 517 15.9 Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitor 518 15.9.1 Tantalum Foil capacitors 518 15.9.2 Tantalum Solid Capacitor 518 15.10 Air Capacitor 519 15.11 Polarized and Non-Polarized Capacitors 519 15.11.1 Non-Polarized Capacitors 520 15.12 Variable Capacitors 521 15.12.1 Air Variable Capacitor 521 15.12.2 Ceramic Variable Capacitor 522 15.12.3 Glass Capacitors 522 15.13 Specifcations of Capacitors 523 15.13.1 Symbolic Representation of Capacitors 524 15.14 Identifcation of Capacitors 525 15.14.1 Colour Codes for Tubular Ceramic Capacitors 525 15.14.2 Colour Code for Mica Capacitors 525 15.14.3 Marking of Capacitors 527 15.15 Solved Examples 527 Review Questions 529 16 Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Fabrication 533 16.1 Printed Circuit Board 533 16.1.1 Advantages of PCBs 534 16.2 Types of PCBs 535 16.2.1 Measures of Level of Complexity in PCB 536 16.3 Types of PCB Substrates (or Laminates) 537 16.3.1 Merits and Demerits of Di? erent PCB Laminates 538 16.3.2 Fabrication of laminate and Reinforcing Materials 540xxviii Contents 16.3.3 Properties of Di?erent PCB Laminates and Commercial Grade Copper Cladded Laminates 540 16.4 Manufacturing Process of Copper Cladded Laminate 542 16.4.1 Processing of a Copper Cladded Laminate 543 16.4.2 Desired Properties of Copper-Cladded Laminates 544 16.5 Layout and Design of a Printed Circuit Board 545 16.5.1 Planning of the PCB Layout 545 16.5.2 Design Considerations in Making PCBs 546 16.6 Manufacturing Processes For PCB 547 16.6.1 Preprocessing 547 16.6.2 Photolithography 548 16.6.3 Etching 549 16.6.4 Drilling 550 16.6.5 Solder Masking 551 16.6.6 Electroplating 551 16.6.7 Board Testing 552 16.6.8 Board Finishing 552 16.7 Manufacturing of Single Sided PCBs 553 16.8 Manufacturing of Double-Sided PCBs 554 16.8.1 Logic Layer Processing 554 16.8.2 Outer Layer Processing 556 16.9 Solved Examples 557 Review Questions 559 17 Optical Properties of Materials, and Materials for Opto-Electronic Devices 561 17.1 Introduction 561 17.1.1 Important Terminologies Related to Optical Materials 562 17.2 Optical Phenomena 563 17.2.1 Interaction of Light with Solids 563 17.2.2 Types of Optical Materials 564 17.3 Re?ection 564 17.4 Refraction 565 17.4.1 Refractive Index 565 17.4.2 Bi-Refringence 567Contents xxix 17.4.3 Relation between Refractive Index and Dielectric Constant 568 17.5 Transmittivity 568 17.6 Scattering 569 17.7 Optical Absorption 569 17.7.1 Capability of a Material to Absorb Light 570 17.7.2 Mechanism of Optical Absorption 571 17.7.3 Absorption Coefcient 571 17.7.4 Factors A?ecting the Absorption Coefcient 572 17.7.5 Te Absorption Spectra of Materials 575 17.8 Optical Properties of Non-Metals 575 17.9 Optical Properties of Metals 576 17.9.1 Reasons of Copper Appearing Reddish-orange, Silver and Aluminium White, and Gold Yellow 576 17.10 Optical Properties of Semiconductors 577 17.10.1 Visibility Range of Light Spectrum 577 17.11 Optical Properties of Insulators 578 17.11.1 Optical Absorption in Ionic Crystals 578 17.12 Luminescence 579 17.12.1 Di?erent Types of Luminescence 579 17.12.2 Photo-Luminescence 580 17.12.3 Electro-Luminescence 580 17.13 Opto-Electronic Devices 581 17.14 Photoconductivity 581 17.14.1 Applications of Photoconductive Devices 582 17.14.2 Photoconductive Materials 582 17.14.3 Factors A?ecting the Selection of Semiconductor 583 17.15 Photoconductive Cell 584 17.15.1 Photo-multiplier Tube 585 17.16 Solved Examples 586 Quick Revision Summary 588 Review Questions 590 Numerical Problems 591 Objective Questions 591xxx Contents 18 Specifc Materials for Electrical, Electronics, Computers, Instruments, Robotics, and Other Applications 593 18.1 Recent Developments 593 18.2 Specifc Materials for Electrical Applications 594 18.3 Specifc Materials For A Typical Battery 596 18.3.1 Separator and its Materials 596 18.3.2 Gridwork Construction of Plates 597 18.4 Specifc Materials for Electronics Applications 599 18.5 Specifc Materials for Computer Applications 601 18.6 Specifc Materials for Instruments and Control Applications 601 18.7 Materials Used in Robots Construction 601 18.8 Information Transmission from Cricket Field to Worldwide Televisions 602 18.9 Specifc Materials for Networking Applications 604 18.9.1 Networking of Networks and Connecting Devices 606 18.9.2 Hardware Used in Networking 610 18.10 Specifc Electronic, Computer, and Robotic Components; and Teir Materials in Automobile Applications 614 18.10.1 Recent Advances in Automotive Electronics 615 18.10.2 Multiplexing in Automobiles 616 18.10.3 Sensors and Actuators, and Teir Materials 617 18.10.4 Engine and Driveline Control 617 18.10.5 Electronic Displays and Information Systems 618 18.10.6 Shape of Tings to Come 619 18.10.7 Future Technologies and Designs 620 18.10.8 Optical Technology 621 18.10.9 Electrical and other Materials in Important Automobile Uses 622 18.11 Pen Drives (or Flash Memory) and Its Materials 623 18.12 Remote Control Devices and Materials Used in Tem 625 18.13 Hand Held Devices and Materials Used in Tem 626 References 629Contents xxxi 19 Recent Advances and Emerging Trends in Electrical and Electronic Materials 631 19.1 Novel Applications of Functionally Graded Nano, Optoelectronic and Termoelectric Materials 631 19.1.1 Introduction to Functionally Graded Materials (FGMs) 632 19.2 CNT Reinforced FGM Composites 633 19.2.1 Applications of CNT in FGM 633 19.3 FGM in Optoelectronic Devices 634 19.3.1 Possible Applications of FGM in Optoelectronics 634 19.3.2 High-Efcient Photodetectors and Solar Cells 635 19.4 Advanced Termoelectric Materials in Electrical and Electronic Applications 635 19.4.1 Introduction 636 19.4.2 Termoelectric Power Generator for Integration in Wearable Microsystems 637 19.4.3 Nano-Termocouple in Termoelectric Energy Harvesting 637 19.4.4 Low-Cost Micro-Termoelectric Coolers for Microelectronic Products 638 19.4.5 Termoelectric Water-Cooling Device for Electronic Equipment 639 19.4.6 Conclusion 640 19.5 Frontiers in Electronic Materials Research 640 19.5.1 Introduction 641 19.6 New Pyroelectric Tin Composite Films 641 19.7 Composite and Nanocomposite Polymer Electrolytes for Electrochemical Energy Sources 642 19.8 Novel Nanostructured Materials for A Variety of Renewable Energy Applications 644 19.9 Critical Fields in Lithium Niobate Nano Ferroelectrics 645 19.10 Nanoengineering of Wood Fibres for Conducting Paper 645 19.11 E?ects of E - Waste on Environment and Teir Solution by Reclamation of Green Materials From the Waste 646 19.11.1 Introduction 647 19.11.2 Major Sources of E-Waste 648xxxii Contents 19.11.3 Constituent Materials of E-Waste 649 19.11.4 Estimation of the Quantity of E-Waste 649 19.11.5 Problems Created by E-Waste 649 19.11.6 Electronic Waste Reclamation 650 19.11.7 Electronic Waste Recovery and Recycling 651 19.11.8 Advanced Methods of Environmental-Friendly Recycling 651 19.11.9 Status of Possible Recovery of Useful Materials from E-Waste in India 652 19.11.10 Conclusions 653 19.12 Plastics in Electrical and Electronics Applications 653 19.12.1 Expanding Plastics 653 19.12.2 Conducting Polymers 654 19.12.3 Polymers in Electronics 654 19.12.4 Liquid Crystal Polymers (LCP) 655 19.12.5 Photocurable Polymers 655 19.12.6 Photorefractive Polymers 656 19.13 Composite Materials for Electronics Applications 656 19.13.1 Magneto-Eletro-Elastic Composite 657 19.13.2 Magnetic Composites 657 19.13.3 Ferrite-Silica Hybridized Composite 658 19.13.4 Composite Electronic Packaging Material 658 19.13.5 Magnetostrictive Material-Shape Memory Piezoelectric Actuator Composite 659 19.14 Electrical Behaviour of Ceramics 660 19.14.1 Applications of Ceramics 660 19.15 Giant Magneto-Resistance (GMR) 661 19.16 Ferror?uids (or Magnetic Fluids) 661 19.16.1 Types of Ferro?uids 662 19.16.2 Properties of Ferro?uids 663 19.17 Information Storage Density 664 19.17.1 Rare-Earth Aluminates as a Charge Trapping Materials for Nand Flash Memories 664 19.18 Magnetocaloric Materials 665 19.18.1 Magnetocaloric Materials 665 19.18.2 Working Principle 666 19.18.3 Applications of Magnetocolorifc Materials 666Contents xxxiii 19.19 Magneto-Dielectric Materials 667 19.19.1 Applications of Magneto-Dielectrics 668 19.19.2 Di?erent Types of Magento-Dielectric Materials 668 19.19.3 Merits of Magneto-Dielectric Materials 669 19.20 Biomimetics and Biomimetic Materials in Electrical and Electronics Applications 670 19.20.1 Nanotechnology Used to Harness the Power of Fire?ies 670 19.20.2 Biomimetic Coating for Electric Transmission 671 19.20.3 Optical Biomimetics: Materials and Applications 672 19.20.4 Display Technology Inspired by Butter?y 672 References 673 Appendix I: SI Prefxes of Multiples and Submultiples 677 Appendix II: Greek Alphabet 679 Appendix III: Conventions to be Followed While Using SI UNIT 681 Appendix IV: Physical Constants 683 Appendix V: Conversion Factors 685 Glossary of Terminologies 687 Answers to Numerical Questions 699 Answers to Objective Questions 705 Index 709
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