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أخوانى فى الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook 3rd English Edition Europa-technical Book Series for the Metalworking Trades Ulrich Fischer Roland Gomeringer Max Heinzler Roland Kilgus Friedrich Naher Stefan Oesterle Heinz Paetzold Andreas Stephan
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Table of Contents 1 Mathematics (M) 9 1.1 Units of measurement SI base quantities and base units .10 Derived quantities and their u nits . 11 Non-SI units 12 1.2 Formulas Formula symbols, mathematical symbols 13 Formulas, equations, g ra p h s . 14 Transformation of fo rm u la s . 15 Quantities and u n its . 16 Calculation w ith quantities . 17 Percentage and interest c a lc u la tio n 17 1.3 Angels and triangels Types of angels, sum of angels in a triangle 18 Theorem of intersecting lines, Pythagorean th e o re m . 18 Functions of right triangles . 19 Functions of oblique tria n g le s . 19 1.4 Lengths Division of le n g th s . 20 Spring w ire le n g th s . 21 Rough len g th s 21 1.5 Areas Angular a re a s 22 Triangle, polygon, c ir c le . 23 Circular sector, circular se gm e n t . 24 E llip se 24 1.6 Volume and surface area Cube, cylinder, pyramid . 25 Truncated pyramid, cone, Truncated cone, sp he re . 26 Volumes of composite s o lid s . 27 1.7 Mass General calculations . 27 Linear mass d e n s ity . 27 Area mass density . 27 1.8 Centroids Centroids of lines . 28 Centroids of plane a re a s . 28 2 Physics (P) 29 2.1 Motion Uniform and accelerated motion . 30 Speeds on m achines . 31 2.2 Forces Representation, addition and resolution of fo r c e s 32 Types of fo r c e s 33 Torque and levers, torque in gear d riv e s . 34 2.3 Work, power, efficiency M echanical w o r k . 34 Simple machines and energy . 35 Potential and kinetic energy . 35 Power and efficiency . 36 2.4 Friction Friction fo rc e 37 Coefficients of fric tio n . 37 Coefficients of rolling frictio n . 37 2.5 Pressure in liquids and gases Pressure, definition and ty p e s . 38 B uoyancy 38 Hydraulic power transm ission . 38 Pressure intensification, flo w velocity 39 Changes of state in gases . 39 2.6 Strength of materials Load cases, types of lo a d in g . 40 M aterial properties, stress lim its . 40 Strength calculation, safety fa c to rs 41 Allowable stresses, modulus of e lasticity 41 Tensile and compressive stress, surface p re s s u re . 42 Shear, bending and torsional stress 43 Mom ents of area, section m o d u li . 44 2.7 Thermodynamics Temperature, linear expansion, sh rin ka ge 45 Quantity of heat 45 Heat flux, heat of co m b u s tio n . 46 Net calorific v a lu e s . 46 2.8 Electricity Quantities and u n its . 47 Ohm's law, electrical re sistan ce . 47 Current density, resistor c irc u it . 48 Types of c u rre n t 49 Electrical w ork and p o w e r . 503 Technical Drawing (TD) 51 3.1 Graphs Cartesian coordinate system . 52 Graph ty p e s . 53 3.2 Basic geometric constructions Lines and angles . 54 Tangents, circular arcs . 55 Inscribed circles, ellipses . 56 Cycloids, involute curves, p ara b o la s 57 3.3 Elements of drawing F o n ts 58 Preferred numbers, radii, scales . 59 Drawing layout, bills of m a te ria ls 60 Line ty p e s 62 3.4 Representation Projection m e th o d s . 64 Views 66 Sectional views . 68 H atching 70 3.5 Dimensioning drawings Dimensioning lines, dimension v a lu e s . . 71 Dimensioning r u le s . 72 Elements of d ra w in g . 73 Tolerance s p e c ific a tio n s . 75 Types of dimensioning . 76 Simplified presentation in draw ings 78 3.6 Machine elements, representation Gear ty p e s 79 Roller b e a rin g s . 80 S e a ls 81 Retaining rings, springs . 82 3.7 Object elements Bosses, object e d g e s . 83 Thread runouts, thread u n d e rc u ts 84 Threads, screw jo in ts . 85 Center holes, knurls, undercuts 86 3.8 Welding and soldering Graphical sy m b o ls . 88 Dimensioning e x a m p le s . 91 3.9 Surfaces Hardness specifications in drawings 92 Form deviations, roughness . 93 Surface testing, surface in d ic a tio n s 94 3.10 ISO tolerances and fits Fundam entals . 98 Basic hole system, basic shaft system . . . 102 General tolerances . 106 Roller bearing f its . 106 Fit recom m endations . 107 Geometric tolerancing . 108 4 Materials Science (MS) 111 4.1 Materials Material characteristics of so lids 112 Material characteristics of liquids and gases 113 Periodic table of the elem ents . 114 4.2 Steels, designation system Definition and classification of s te e l 116 Standardization of steel products 117 Designation system for s te e ls . 118 4.3 Steels, steel types O ve rw ie w of steel prod u cts . 123 Unalloyed ste e ls . 126 Case hardened steels, quenched & tempered s te e ls . 129 Nitriding steels, free cutting steels 131 Tool steels, stainless s te e ls . 132 Steels for bright steel products . 137 4.4 Steels, finished products Sheet and strip metal, tubes . 138 P ro file s 142 Linear mass density and area mass d e n s ity 151 4.5 Heat treatment Iron-carbon phase d ia g ram . 152 H ea t treatem ent of s te e ls . 153 Hardening of aluminium a llo y s 156 4.6 Cast iron materials Designation and material c o d e s 157 Classification . 158 Cast iro n 159 Malleable cast iron, cast s te e l . 160 4.7 Foundry technology 161 4.8 Light alloys Overview of aluminum alloys . 163 W rought aluminum alloys . 165 Aluminum profiles . 168 M agnesium and titanium a llo y s . 171 4.9 Heavy non-ferrous metals Overview and designation s y s te m 172 Copper and refined zinc a llo y s . 174 4.10 Other metallic materials 176 4.11 Plastics Overview and d e sig n atio n . 178 Thermoset plastics . 181 Thermoplastics, elastom ers . 182 Plastics processing, testing of p la stics. . . 1864.12 Material testing Overview, tensile t e s t . 189 Rotary bending t e s t . 192 Hardness t e s t . 193 4.13 Corrosion, hazardous materials C orro sion 196 Hazardous m a te ria ls . 197 5 Machine Elements (ME) 201 5.1 Threads Types of threads, o v e rv ie w . 202 M etric ISO threads . 202 Other types of threads . 205 Thread to le ra n c e s . 207 5.2 Bolts and screws Overview, designations, property classes 208 Hexagon head bolts & s c r e w s . 211 Other bolts & screws . 214 Screw joint ca lculations . 220 Locking fasteners, bolt and screw drive system s 221 5.3 Countersinks Countersinks for countersunk head s c r e w s 223 Counterbores for cap s c r e w s . 224 5.4 Nuts O v e rv ie w 225 Designations, property classes . 226 Hexagon n u t s . 228 Other nuts 230 5.5 Washers Overview, flat w a s h e rs . 232 Washers for HV b o lts . 234 5.6 Pins and clevis pins O v e rv ie w 235 Grooved pins, grooved drive studs, clevis p in s 237 5.7 Shaft-hub connections Keys, gib-head keys . 238 Feather keys, splined shaft jo in ts 239 M etric tapers, morse tapers, steep tapers 240 Tool holding fixtures . 241 5.8 Other machine elements Tension, com pression and disc springs . 242 Grub screws, thrust pads, knobs 245 T-slots and a c c e s s o rie s . 247 Quick-release drilling fix tu re . 248 5.9 Drive elements B e lts 250 Gears 253 Transmission ra tio s . 256 5.10 Bearings Plain bearings, o v e rv ie w . 257 Plain bearing b u s h in g s . 258 Antifriction bearings, o ve rv ie w . 259 Ball bea ring s 261 Roller b e a rin g s 262 Sealing e le m e n ts . 266 Lubricating o ils 267 Lubricating greases . 268 6 Production Engineering (PE) 269 6.1 Quality management Standards, term inology . 270 Quality planning, quality testing 272 Statistical analysis . 273 Statistical process c o n tro l . 275 Quality management of processes 276 6.2 EC Machinery Directive EC M achinery D ire c tiv e . 278 CE marking 279 6.3 Production organization Overview; product breakdown structure 280 W ork planning 282 Cost a c c o u n tin g . 286 6.4 Maintenance, repair & overhaul (MRO) Maintenance, inspection, repair, im provem ent 289 MRO c o n c e p ts 290 Documentation s y s te m . 292 6.5 Machining processes Overview; forces and p o w e r . 293 Drilling 298 T u rn in g 301 M illin g 305 Indexable in s e rts . 308 Cooling lub ricatio n . 311 Cuttin tool m aterials . 315 Grinding, h o n in g . 317 6.6 Removal operations Electric discharge m a c h in in g . 323 Process parameters in EDM erosion 3246.7 Separation by cutting Cutting f o r c e . 325 Cutting to o l 326 6.8 Forming B e n d in g 330 Deep d ra w in g . 334 6.9 Injection molding Injection molding t o o ls . 338 Shrinkage, cooling, b atch in g . 341 6.10 Joining Welding p ro c e s s e s . 343 Weld p rep a ra tion . 345 Gas-shielded w e ld in g . 346 Arc w e ld in g 348 Beam cu ttin g . 350 Gas cylinders, identification . 352 Brazing, bonded join ts . 354 6.11 Workplace and environmental protection Safety c o lo rs 359 W arning signs, safety s ig n s . 360 Sound and n oise . 366 7 Automation and Information Technology (A) 367 7.1 Control engineering, basic terminology Basic terminology, code letters, symbols 368 Analog c o n tro lle rs . 370 Discontinuous and digital c o n tro lle rs 371 Binary lo g ic . 372 Numbering system s . 373 Information processing . 374 7.2 Electrical circuits Circuit sym b ols . 375 Designations in circuit p la n s . 377 Circuit d ia g ram s . 378 Sensors 379 Safety precautions . 380 7.3 GRAFCET Important basic te rm s . 382 Steps, tra n s itio n s . 383 A c tio n s 384 Branchings 386 7.4 Programmable logical controllers PLC PLC programming languages, overview 388 Ladder diagram (LD) . 389 Instruction list (IL) . 390 PLC programming languages, c o m pa rison . 391 Programming e x a m p le . 392 7.5 Hydraulics, pneumatics Circuit sym b ols . 393 Proportional v a lv e s . 395 Circuit d ia g ram s . 396 Pneumatic c o n tro l . 397 Electro-pneumatic c o n tro l . 398 Electro-hydraulic c o n tro l . 399 Hydraulic flu id s . 400 Pneumatic c y lin d e rs . 401 Hydraulic pum ps . 402 Tubes 403 7.6 Handling and robot systems Coordinate systems and a x e s . 404 Robot d e sig n s . 405 Grippers, job s a fe ty . 406 7.7 CNC technology Coordinate a x e s . 407 Program s tru c tu re . 408 Tool offset and cutter com pensation 409 Program structure according to D IN 410 Program structure according to PAL 412 PAL functions for la th e s . 413 PAL cycles for lathes . 414 PAL functions for milling m a c h in e s 417 PAL cycles for milling m achin es 418 8 Material Chart, Standards (S) 425– 434 8.1 International material comparison c h a rt 425 8.2 Index of cited standards and other regulations . 430 Subject Index 435– 444 Subject index A Abrasives 318 ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolym ers) . 179, 180, 182, 183, 186, 187 Absolute pressure 38, 39 Acceleration 30 AcceIeration fo rce . 33 Acceptable quality le v e l 276 Acceptance sa m p lin g 276 Acceptance sam pling, attribute s a m p lin g 276 Accident prevention regulations on no ise 366 Acetylene cylinders, color c o d in g 353 Acm e screw th re a d 203 Acrylonitrile butadien rubber (NBR) . 185 A dditional sym bols 361 Adhesive joints, re p re se n ta tio n 91 A d h e s iv e s 357 A ir consum ption o f pneum atic cylinders 401 A ir pressure 38 A llow able s tre s s . 41 A lternating c u rre n t 49 A lum inum alloys, heat tre a tm e n t 156 A lum inum casting a llo y s . 164 A lum inum , d e s ig n a tio n 164 A lum inum p ro file s . 168 – 170 A lum inum tu b e s . 170 A lum inum , alum inum alloys, o ve rvie w 163 Am erican Standard taper pipe screw threads, fine (NTPF) 203 Am erican Standard taper pipe threads (N PT) . 203 Analog c o n tro lle rs 370 AND o p e ra tio n 372, 391 AND-NOT o p e ra tio n 372 Angles, typ e s 18 A ngular contact ball be a rin g s 261 A ngular d im e n sio n s 72 A ngular v e lo c ity . 30 A nti-rotation lo c k . 221 A n tifriction bearing, d e s ig n a tio n 260 A n tifriction bearing, overvie w 259 A n tifriction bearings . 259 – 264 A n tifriction bearings, dim ension se rie s 260 A ram ide fibers . 187 Arc le n g th 20 Arc w e ld in g 348 Arc w e lding, w eld d e s ig n . 349 Area com pression . 42 Area gra p h s 53 Area, u n its 10 Areas, c a lcu la tio n 2 2 – 24 Argon cylinders, color c o d in g 353 A rithm etic m e a n . 274 A rrow projection m e th o d . 65 A u s te n ite 152 Austenitic s te e ls . 133 Autom ation te ch n o lo g y 3 6 7 -4 2 4 A u xiliary d im e n s io n in g 76 Average s p e e d . 31 Average speed of crank m echanism s . 31 A xonom etric representations 64 B B a ll b e a rin g s . 261, 262 Ball k n o b s 245 Bar steel, b rig h t . 144 Bar steel, h o t-ro lle d 143 Base q u a n titie s . 10 Base u n its 10 Basic geom etric c o n s tru c tio n s . 5 4 –57 Basic hole 99 Basic p o ly m e rs . 179 Basic polym ers, letter s y m b o ls 179 Basic s h a ft 99 Beam c u ttin g 350 Beam cutting, a p p lic a tio n s . 351 Beam cutting, dim ensional tolerances . 351 Beam-cutting, standard v a lu e s 350 Belt drive tra n s m is s io n 256 Bend fo r m in g 330 - 333 Bend form in g, bending r a d iu s 332 Bend form in g, calculation of blanks 332, 333 Bend form in g, spring back . 333 Bending lo a d 43 Bending stress . 43 Bending t o o l 330 Bent parts . 332, 333 Bevel g e a rs 256 Bevel gears, ca lcu la tio n 255 Bills of m a te ria ls 61,281 Binary lo g ic 372 Binary s y s te m . 373 Blank diam eters fo r de e p -d ra w in g . 336 Blank holding force 337 Boiling te m p e ra tu re . 11 2 , 113 Bolts and screw s 208 - 222 Bolts and screws, designation 209 Bolts and screws, o ve rvie w 20 8 , 209 Bolts and screws, property classes . 210 Bolts and screws, screw drive s y s te m s 222 Bolts fo r T -slots . 247 Bonded joints, p re p a ra tio n . 357 Bonded joints, te s tin g 358 Bonded joints, typ e s 358 Boron n itrid e . 3 1 4 , 315 Boyle's l a w 39 BR (butadiene ru b b e r) 185 B razing . 354 Breakeven p o in t . 288 Brinell hardness te s t 193 Buoyant f o rc e . 38 B u s h in g s 327 C Cabinet projection . 64 Calculation of blanks fo r b e n d -fo rm in g . 332, 333 Calculation of costs and m achine hour r a te s 286 Calorific v a lu e . 46 Cap screws and hexagon head bolts, counterbores. 224 Cap screws, slo tted 215 Cap screws, socket h e a d . 214 Captive fa s te n e rs . 221 Carbon dioxide cylinders, color c o d in g . 353 Cartesian coordinate system . 52Case h a rdening . 153 Case hardened ste e ls 129 Case hardened steels, b rig h t . 137 Case hardened steels, heat tre a tm e n t . 154 Cast copper a llo y s . 175 Cast iron, b a in itic . 158 Cast iron, dim ensional tolerances 162 Cast iron, flake g ra p h ite . 158, 159 Cast iron, identification codes 157 Cast iron m a te ria ls . 156 Cast iron, spheroidal g ra p h ite . 158, 159 Cast s te e l . 1 5 8 , 160 Casting allow ances 162 Castle n u ts 231 Cavalier p ro je c tio n 64 CE m a rk . 279 Cellulose acetate ( C A ) . 182, 183 Cellulose acetobutyrate plastics (CAB) . 180 C e m e n tite 152 Center holes, d im e n s io n s . 86 Center holes, representation . 86 Centrifugal fo rc e . 33 Centroids, geom etrical surfa ces 28 Centroids, lin e s . 28 Ceramic m aterials . 176 Chamfers, d im e n s io n in g . 73 Change in re sista n ce 47 Change in vo lu m e . 45 Change o f state in g a s e s . 39 Cheese head screws, s lo tte d . 215 Chemicals used in metal te c h n o lo g y . 115 Chip rem oval ra te . 293 Circle, area 23 Circle, center p o in t . 56 Circle, c irc u m s c rib e d 23 C irclip s . 265 Circuit d ia g ra m s 377, 378 Circuit s y m b o ls 375, 376 Circular m ovem ents of CNC m a c h in e s . 41 0 , 411 Circular sector, a re a 24 Circular segm ent, a re a 24 Circum ferential velocities, ca lc u la tio n 30, 31 Clearance fits 98 Clearance holes fo r b o lts . 210 Clevis p in s 237 Closed loop control, basic te rm in o lo g y . 368 Closed Substance Cycle and Waste M anagem ent A c t . 197 CNC te c h n o lo g y 407 – 424 CNC technology, coordinate s y s te m . 407 Coefficient o f therm al co n d u tivity 113 Cold-work s te e ls . 132 Com posite m a te ria ls 176 Compressed-gas c y lin d e rs . 345 Compressed-gas cylinders, color c o d in g 353 Com pression s p rin g s 243 Compressive s tre s s 42 C onductance 47 C o n d u c tiv ity 12 Conductors, electrotechnical . 377 Cone truncated, surface area and v o lu m e 26 Cone, surface area and volum e 26 Conical se a ts 247 Conical spring w a s h e rs 234 Continuous controllers 370 Contribution m a rg in 288 Controlled system s . 371 C ontrollers 3 7 0 , 371 Cooling lubricants 3 11, 312 Coordinate d im e n s io n in g . 77 C opper-alum inum a llo y s . 175 Copper-nickel-zinc a llo y s . 175 Copper-tin alloys . 174 Copper-zinc alloys . 174 C o rrosio n . 196 Corrosion p re ve n tio n 196 Corrosion p ro te c tio n 196 C o s in e . 19 Cost a c c o u n tin g . 286 Cost com parison m e th o d . 288 Cotter p in s 231 Counterbore depth, calculation 224 Counterboring, productive t im e 300 Countersunk head s c re w s . 223 CR (chloroprene ru b b e r) . 185 Crank p re sse s 325 CSM (chlorosulfonated polyethylene ela sto m e rs). . 185 Cube, surface a r e a . 25 Cube, v o lu m e 25 Current d e n s ity . 48 Cutter co m p e n s a tio n 409 Cutting ceram ics . 315 Cutting data fo r tu rn in g 301 Cutting die d im e n s io n s 328 Cutting d ie s 326 Cutting fo rc e 325 Cutting force in d r illin g 294 C utting force in face m illin g . 296 C utting force in tu r n in g 294 C utting force, specific 295 C utting fo rc e s 294 - 296 C utting p o w e r 294 - 296 C utting pow er in d r illin g 294 C utting pow er in face m illin g . 296 C utting pow er in tu rn in g 294 C utting speed, c a lcu la tio n . 31 C utting tool m aterials . 315, 316 Cutting w o r k 325 Cycloids, c o n s tru c tio n 57 Cylinder, pow er 402 Cylinder, surface area 25 Cylinder, vo lu m e . 25 Cylindrical roller b e a rin g s . 262 D Damages to health, n o is e . 366 Danger criteria 363 Danger s y m b o ls . 363 Dangerous gases and m a te ria ls 198 Deceleration fo rce . 33 Decimal system . 373 Deep groove ball bearings 261, 262 Deep d r a w in g 3 3 4 -3 3 7 Deep draw ing, blank d ia m e te rs 336 Deep draw ing, blank-holding f o r c e . 337 Deep draw ing, deep draw ing f o r c e . 337 Deep draw ing, draw ing g a p . 336 Deep draw ing, draw ing ra tio . 337 Deep draw ing, d ra w s 337 Deep draw ing, tool radii 336 Defect c h a rt 277 Density, m aterial characteristics . 112, 113 Derivative co n tro lle r . 370 Description of hazards 363 Designation fo r alum inum c a s tin g s . 167 D e via tio n s 98 Devices, d e s ig n a tio n 377 Diagram o f forces, calculation 32 Diam eter, d im e n s io n in g 73D ia m o n d 315 Die b e n d in g 331 Die clearance 328 Die set sh a n ks . 327 Die sets . 327 Die sh a n k 336 Digital co n tro lle rs . 371 Dim ension lin e s . 71 Dim ension num bers 71 Dim ensioning r u le s 72 Dim ensioning system s 70 Dim etric representation 64 Direct c o s tin g . 288 Direct c o s ts 286 Direct current (D C ) 49, 351 Direct in d e x in g . 306 Direct-current voltage 49 Disc sp rin g s 244 Discontinuous c o n tro lle rs . 371 Disposal of substances 197 D ividing head spindle 306 Division of le n g th s 20 Docum entation s y s te m 292 Dodecagon, construction . 55 Dowel p ins 236 Drain p lu g s 218 Draw ing elem ents . 60 Draw ing ratio in deep d ra w in g 337 Draws in deep d r a w in g 337 Drill b u s h in g s . 249 Drilling c y c le s . 414 Drilling, cutting force and p o w e r 294 Drilling, p ro b le m s . 300 Drilling, productive t im e . 300 Drilling, standard v a lu e s . 298 Drive e le m e n ts 253-256 Dry m achin ing . 314 E EC Directive on Hazardous Substances . 198, 199 EC M achinery D ire c tiv e . 278, 279 Eccentric p re s s e s 325 Edge w id th . 328 E fficie ncy 36 Elastom ers . 185 Electric c u r re n t . 47, 48 Electric current, base q u a n tity 12 Electric discharge m achining E D M 323, 324 Electrical circuit s y m b o ls 375, 376 Electrical circ u its 375 - 381 Electrical devices, protection . 381 Electrical pow er . 50 Electrical pow er o u tp u t 50 Electrical resistance (of conductors) . 47 E lectricity 4 7 – 50 Electricity, quantities and u n its 47 Electrochemical se rie s . 196 Electro-hydraulic c o n tro l . 399 Electro-pneum atic c o n tro l . 398 Ellipse, a re a 24 Ellipse, co n stru ctio n 56 Energy, kinetic . 35 Energy, potential . 35 EPDM (ethylene propylene ru b b e r) . 185 Epichlorhydrin rubber (C O ) . 185 Equal-leg steel a n g le 147 E quations 14 Escape and rescue s ig n s . 361 European W aste C atalogue . 312 Eutectic . 152 E u te c to id 152 Expansion co e fficie n t . 112, 113 E x tru s io n 186 Eye b o lts 218 Eye n u ts . 230 F Face m illing, cutting force and cutting p o w e r . 296 F a tig u e te s t 190 Feather k e y s 239 Feed rate, ca lcu la tio n 31 Feet fo r jigs and fix tu re s . 249 Felt r in g s 266 F errite . 152 Ferritic steels 134 Fillers and reinforcing m aterials fo r p la stics . 179 Fine thread (N TP F) 203 Fine threads 204 Fire protection s y m b o ls 361 Fire-extinguishing lin e 365 Fit recom m en dations 107 Fits, ISO s y s te m . 98 Fixed costs 288 Flat head screws, cross-recessed 216 Flip-flop elem e nts 372, 376 Flow v e lo c ity 39 Fluoro rubber (FKM ) 185 Flux fo r brazin g . 355 Flux fo r s o ld e rin g . 355 Foam m a te ria ls . 185 F o ld in g . 331 Font s ty le s 58 Fonts . 58 Forces 32 Forces, addition and resolution . 32 Forces, representation . 32 Form d e v ia tio n s 93 F o rm u la 1 4 , 15 Foundry te ch n o lo g y . 1 6 1 , 162 Free b e n d in g . 331 Free-cutting steels 131 Free-cutting steels, b r ig h t . 136 Freezing te m p erature 113 Frequency, re la tiv e . 273 F rictio n 37 Friction coefficients . 37 Friction m o m e n t 37 Frictional w o rk 34 Function block language F B L . 389 Fundamental d e v ia tio n s . 98 Fundamental deviations fo r h o le s . 101 Fundamental deviations fo r s h a fts . 100 Fundamental d im e n s io n s . 76 Fundamental tolerance g ra d e s 98, 99 Fundamental to le ra n c e s 99 F u s e s . 380 Fusion w elding, m e th o d s . 343G Gage pressure 38 Gas cylinders, color c o d in g . 352 Gas cylinders, id e n tific a tio n 352, 353 Gas law, id e a l . 39 Gas w e ld in g 343 Gas-shielded w e ld in g . 34 3 , 346 Gaseous m a te ria ls . 113 Gaseous substances, physical p ro p e rtie s 113 Gaussian d is trib u tio n 274 Gear drives, to rq u e s 34 Gear drives, tra n s m is s io n . 256 Gear types, re p re s e n ta tio n . 79 G e a rin g . 97 Gears, representation 79 General to le ra n ce s 106 General tolerances, w eldm ents 344 G eom etric to le ra n c in g 108 Gib-head k e y s 238 G lobally Harm onised System (G H S ) . 364 GRAFCET, graphical program m ing language fo r sequential c o n tro ls 382 – 387 G ra p h s 14, 52, 53 Greek a lp h a b e t . 58 G rin d in g 3 1 7 -3 2 1 G rinding w h e e ls . 319 G rinding, m axim um allow able peripheral speed . . . 317 G rinding, productive t im e . 321 G rinding, standard v a lu e s 317, 320 G rippers . 406 G rooved drive stu d s . 237 G rooved pins 237 G rub screws w ith thru st p o in t . 245 Guide p o s ts 327 H Handling systems, jo b s a fe ty 406 Hard m e ta ls 315 Hard m illin g 314 Hard tu r n in g 314 Hardening, quenching and te m p e rin g . 153 Hardness specifications 92 Hardness tests 193 – 195 Hardness test by V ic k e rs . 194 Hardness values, conversion ta b le . 195 Hatching o f sections 68 H atchings 70 Hazardous m aterials . 1 9 8 -2 0 0 Hazardous w aste . 197 Heat flu x . 46 Heat o f c o m b u s tio n 46 H e a t o f fu s io n 46 Heat o f v a p o riza tio n 46 Heat tran sm ission . 46 Heat transm ission c o e ffic ie n t 46 Heat tre a tm e n t 152 – 156 Heat treatm ent o f steels 153 – 156 Heat treatm ent sp e cifica tio n s 92 Heat treatm ent specifications in draw ings 92 Heat, sp e cific . 11 2 , 113 Heavy m etals . 172 -175 Heliocoidal line, c o n s tru c tio n 57 Helium cylinders, color c o d in g 353 Hexadecimal s y s te m 373 Hexagon acorn n u ts 230 Hexagon head bolt w ith reduced shank . 212 Hexagon head b o lts . 211 – 213 Hexagon head bolts w ith large w idths across fla ts . 213 Hexagon n u t s 227 - 230 Hexagon, co n stru ctio n 55 Hexagonal acorn n u t s 230 Hexagonal fit bolts w ith large w idths across flats 213 Hexagonal fit bolts w ith long th re a d . 213 High-grade a lu m in u m . 163, 165 High-perform ance g rin d in g . 320 High-speed c u ttin g . 314 High-speed s te e ls . 132 High-speed steels, heat tre a tm e n t 154 H is to g ra m 273 H ollow cylinder, surface area and v o lu m e 25 H ollow taper shanks 241 Hom ogenizing a n n e a l 152 Honing, cutting v a lu e s 322 Honing, selection o f honing s to n e s . 322 Hooke's la w 33 Hot-work ste e ls . 132 Hot-work steels, heat tre a tm e n t 154 HSC (High speed cutting) 314 Hydraulic circuit diagram s . 396 Hydraulic circuit sym bols 3 9 3 -3 9 5 Hydraulic flu id s . 400 Hydraulic oils 400 Hydraulic pow er tra n s m is s io n 38 H y d ra u lics . 393 - 403 Hydrogen cylinders, color co d in g 353 Hydrostatic p re s s u re 38 Hyperbola, construction 57 I, J I-beam I P E 148 I-beams, m e d iu m . 148 I-beams, w id e . 1 4 8 , 149 Identification o f pipelines . 365 Ignition tem perature 113 IIR Isobutene isoprene ru b b e r 185 Incline . 73 Inclined p la n e 35 Indexable insert holders 313 Indexable inserts 3 0 8 -3 1 0 In d e xin g . 306 Indirect in d e x in g . 306 Inform ation processing, representation 374 Inform ation s ig n s . 362 Injection m o ld in g . 186, 3 3 8 – 342 Injection pressure 186, 342 In s p e c tio n 289 Instruction list (IL) . 390 Integral c o n tro lle r . 370 Interest ca lcu la tio n . 17 Interference fits 98 Interm ediate tim e . 283 In v o lu te . 57 IR (isoprene ru b b e r) 185 Iron-carbon phase d ia g ra m . 152 ISO f it s 100 – 105ISO system of lim its and f it s . 99 Isom etric p ro je c tio n 64 Item n u m b e rs . 61 Jig p la te s 249 Job tim e 284 K Kinetic e n e rg y . 35 K n obs . 246 Knurled n u ts 231 K n urls . 86 Krypton cylinders, color c o d in g 353 L Labels fo r hazardous g o o d s . 352 Ladder diagram (LD) 389 Lam inated m aterials 187 Laser cutting, standard v a lu e s 350 Latent heat of fu sio n . 1 1 2 , 113 Law of cosines . 19 Law of sines 19 Leader lin e s 72 Le d e b u rite 152 Lefthand thre ads . 202 Lengths, ca lc u la tio n 20, 21 Lengths, e ffe c tiv e . 21 Lengths, u n its . 10 Lettering 58 Lever . 34 Lever principle . 34 Lifting w o r k 34 Light a llo y s . 1 63-171 L im its . 98 Lim its fo r th re a d s . 207 Linear e x p a n s io n . 45 Linear expansion co e ffic ie n t 1 1 2 , 113 Linear fu n c tio n . 14 Linear mass d e n s ity 27, 151 Linear m ovem ents o f CNC m achines . 410, 411 Lines in technical d ra w in g s 62, 63 Lines, centroid . 28 Liquid m a te ria ls . 113 Liquid materials, characteristics 113 Load cases 40 Location of punch holder s h a n k 329 Location p in s 246 Lock nuts fo r antifriction b e a rin g s . 264 Lock w ashers . 230, 264 Locking fa s te n e rs . 221 L u b ric a n ts 268 Lubricating g re a s e s 268 Lubricating o ils . 267 M M achine c a p a b ility . 277 M achine e le m e n ts . 201 -2 6 8 M achine hourly ra te s . 287 M achining processes . 293 - 322 M agnesium , casting a llo y s 171 M agnesium , w ro u g h t a llo y s 171 M agnetism . 12 M aintenan ce 289 Maintenance, repair and o v e rh a u l 289, 292 M alleable cast ir o n 158, 160 M andatory sig n s 361 Manual arc w e ld in g . 343 Martens hardness . 195 M artensitic s te e ls . 134 Mass, base q u a n tity . 10 Mass, c a lc u la tio n 27 Material ch a ra cte ristics . 1 12, 113 Material codes fo r s te e ls 119 Material c o s ts 286 Material p roperties 40 Material te s tin g 189 – 195 Material testing, o v e rv ie w 189, 190 M aterials s c ie n c e 111 – 200 M athem atical sym bols . 13 M a th e m a tics .9 -2 8 M axim um clearance . 98 M axim um d im e n sio n . 98 M ean standard deviation c h a rt . 275 Mechanics, quantities and u n its 1 0 , 11 Median value range c h a r t 275 M elting tem perature . 1 1 2 , 113 M em ory (flip flo p ) 372, 376 M etal active gas w elding M A G 343 M etal inert gas w elding M IG . 343 M eter, base u n it . 10 M etric ISO th re a d s 204 M etric ta p e rs . 240, 241 MF (m elam ine form aldehyde) re s in . 181 M icroencapsulated adhesives 221 M illing machines, PAL c y c le s . 417 – 424 M illing, cutting force and cutting p o w e r 296 M illing, p ro b le m s . 306 M illing, productive tim e 307 M illing, standard values 305 M inim al quantity lu b rica tio n . 314 M inim um cle a ra n ce 98 M inim um d im e n s io n 98 M inim um engagem ent d e p th 210 Miscellaneous functions of CNC m achin es 408 M odule series fo r spur gears . 254 M odulus o f e la s tic ity 41 M olecular g ro u p s . 115 M om ent o f area . 44 M orse ta p e r . 240, 241 M otion, accelerated 30 M otion, circular . 30 M otion, u n ifo rm . 30 M R O 2 8 9 – 292 M ultiple start th re a d s 202N NAND o p e ra tio n . 372 N arrow V - b e lt 251 Nassi-Shneiderman d ia g r a m 374 NC technology 407 - 424 Needle b e a rin g s . 264 N itrid in g . 153 N itriding s te e ls . 131 N itriding steels, heat trea tm ent 156 Nitrogen gas cylinders, color c o d in g . 353 N o is e . 366 Noise Protection R e g u la tio n s 366 Noise, harm ful to h e a lth . 366 Nom inal d im e n s io n s 98 Non-ferrous m etals . 172 - 175 N on-ferrous metals, m aterial co d e s 164, 173 Non-ferrous metals, system atic designation 173 NOR o p e ra tio n . 372 Norm al d is trib u tio n 274 N o rm alizing 153 NOT o peration 372 Notched-bar im pact bending te s t 192 NPSM th re a d s 203 NR (natural rubber) . 185 N um bering system s 373 Num erical c o n tro l 407 - 424 Num erical value e q u a tio n s . 14 N u ts . 2 2 5 -2 3 1 Nuts fo r T -s lo ts . 247 Nuts, d e s ig n a tio n . 226 Nuts, o v e rv ie w 225, 226 Nuts, property cla sse s 227 o O -rin g s . 266 O hm 's la w 47 Open loop control, basic te rm in o lo g y 368, 369 OR o p e ra tio n 372 O rientation to le ra n c e s 109 O verhead . 286 Oxygen cylinders, color coding 353 P PA (polyam ide) p la stics 180 PAL c y c le s 414 PAL cycles fo r la th e s . 4 1 4 -4 1 6 Pan head tapping screw s . 217 Parabola, co n stru ctio n 57 Parallel dim en sioning 77 Parallel resistor c ir c u it 48 Parallelogram, a r e a 22 Pareto d ia g ra m . 277 Partial view s in d ra w in g s . 66 P a tte rn s . 74 Patterns, color c o d e s 161 PC (polycarbonate) plastics 179, 180 PC & ABS plastics . 187 PC & PET p la s tic s . 187 PE (polyethylene) p la s tic s 179, 180 P earlite . 152 Percentage c a lcu la tio n 17 Periodic table o f the elem ents 114 PF (phenol form aldehyde) r e s in 180 pH va lu e . 115 Physics 2 9 –50 Pins 2 3 5 – 237 Pins, o ve rvie w . 235 Pipe threads 206 Pipelines, id e n tific a tio n 365 Piston s p e e d s . 402 Plain bearing bushings 258 Plain bearing m a te ria ls 257 Plain b e a rin g s . 257, 258 Plane areas, c e n tro id 28 Plasma arc w elding (P A W ) . 343 Plasma cutting, standard values 350 Plastic processing . 186 Plastic processing, tolerances . 186 Plastics 178 – 188 Plastics, basic po lym e rs 179 Plastics, distinguishing characteristics . 180 Plastics, fillers and reinforcing m ate rials 179 Plastics, hardness testing . 188 Plastics, identification 180 Plastics, tem perature b e h a v io r 178 Plateau h o n in g . 322 PLC . 3 8 8 -3 9 2 PLC, program m ing la n g u a g e s . 3 8 8 -3 9 1 PM M A (polym ethylm ethacrylate) p la s tic s 179, 180, 182 Pneumatic circuit d iagram s . 396 Pneumatic circuit sym bols 393, 394 Pneumatic cylinders, air co n su m p tio n . 401 Pneumatic cylinders, d im e n sio n s 401 Pneumatic cylinders, piston force s 401 P n e u m a tics 403 Polar coordinate s y s te m 53 Polar coordinates in draw ings . 77 Polyblends 187 Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) 176, 179 Polygon, c o n s tru c tio n 55 Polygon, re g u la r . 23 Polyim ide (PI) resin . 187 Polyoxidem ethylene (POM, polyacetal) resin 179, 180 Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) p la s tic s . 187 P o lystyre n e 182 Polysulfone (PSU) . 182 Positional d im e n s io n in g . 76 Positional d im e n s io n s 76 Positive drive belt, re p re se n ta tio n 79 Positive drive b e lts . 252 Possible f it s 107 Potential e n e rg y . 35 Pour p o in t 400 Power fa c to r 50 Power o f t e n 16 Power, e le c tric a l . 50 Power, m echanical . 36 PP (polypropylene) plastics . 180 PPE & PS p la s tic s . 187 Precision steel tubes . 403 Precision steel tubes, seam less . 141, 403 Preferred n u m b e rs . 59 Preparatory functions of CNC m a c h in e s 408 Pressed joints, representation . 91 Pressure . 38 Pressure in te n s ific a tio n 39 Pressure typ e s 38 Prim ary p r o f ile 93 Prime c o s t 286P ro b a b ility 272 Probability s y s te m 273 Process ca p a b ility . 277 Process control c h a rts 275 Process tren ds . 276 Processing c o n tr o l 282 Product b re a k d o w n 281 Product life cycle . 280 Production co s ts . 286 Production e n g in e e rin g 269 - 366 Production organization 280 - 288 Productive tim e in co u n te rb o rin g 300 Productive tim e in d r illin g . 300 Productive tim e in E D M 323 Productive tim e in g rin d in g . 321 Productive tim e in m illin g . 307 Productive tim e in re a m in g . 300 Productive tim e in screw thread c u t tin g 303 Productive tim e in tu rn in g . 303 Program flo w chart 374 Program structure of CNC m a ch in e s . 408 Program m able logical controllers (P L C ) . 388 - 392 Prohibitive s ig n s . 359 Projection m e th o d s 64, 65 Property classes of bolts and s cre w s . 210 Proportional co n tro lle rs 370 Proportional integral c o n tro lle r 370 Proportional integral derivative c o n tro lle r 370 Proportional valves 395 P roxim ity sensors . 379 PTFE (polytetrafluorethylene) p la s tic s 179, 182 Pumps, p o w e r . 402 P u nch . 328 Punch and cutting die d im e n sio n s . 328 Punch d im e n s io n s 328 Punch holder shanks, lo c a tio n 329 PUR (p o lyu re th a n e ) 180 PVC . 1 7 9 , 180 PVC-P . 180 PVC-U . 180 Pyram id, vo lu m e . 25 Pythagorean theorem 18 Q Q uality c o n tro l . 272 Q uality control charts . 275, 277 Q uality control circle 272 Q uality m a n a g e m e n t . 270 – 277 Q uality m anagem ent, d e fin itio n s 271 Q uality m anagem ent, standards 270 Q uality p la n n in g . 272 Q uality te s tin g . 272 Quantities, p h y s ic a l 1 6 , 17 Q uantity o f h e a t . 45 Quenched and tem pered s te e ls . 130, 155 Quenched and tem pered steels, b r ig h t 137 Quenched and tem pered steels, heat tre a tm e n t . . 155 Quick-release drillin g fix tu re 248 R R-phrases 199 Radial se a ls 266 R a d ii . 59, 73 Radius, dim ension lines 73 Raised head countersunk s c re w s 216 Raised head countersunk tapping s cre w s 216 Raw d a ta 273 Reaming, productive t im e . 300 Reaming, standard va lu e s . 299 Recomm ended safety m easures 200 Recrystallization a n n e a l 152 Rectangle, a re a . 22 Reference lin e s . 72 Reference points of CNC m a c h in e s . 407 Refined zinc a llo y s 175 Regulations of the German Em ployers' Liability A sso cia tio n . 359 - 362 Reinforcing fib e rs . 187 Removal operations, productive t im e . 323 Removal ra te 323 Resistance, c o n d u c to r 47 Resistivity, electrical 47 Retaining r in g s . 265 Retaining rings, representation 82 Rhom boid, a r e a . 22 Rhombus, a re a . 22 Robot axes 404 Robot system s 404, 405 Robots, coordinate s y s te m . 404 Robots, d e s ig n . 405 Rockwell h a rd n e ss 194 Rod e le c tro d e . 348 Roll b e n d in g 331 Roller bearing f it s . 106 Roller bearings, p ro p e rtie s . 259 Roller bearings, representation 80 Rolling b e a rin g s 262, 263 Rolling fric tio n . 37 Roman n u m e ra ls . 58 Rotary bending t e s t 192 Rough d im e n sio n s 76 Roughness depth in turn ing operations 301 Roughness p a ra m e te rs 93 Round bars, b r ig h t 144 Round bars, h o t-ro lle d 143 R S -flip flo p . 372, 376 R u b b e rs . 185 Rule-of-ten (for costs) 272 Runout tolerances . 110 s S-phrases 200 Safety c o lo rs 359 Safety fa c to r s . 41 Safety precautions against electrical shock 380 Safety sig n s . 3 6 1 , 362 Sales p ric e 286 Sam ples . 274 SAN (styrene-acrylonitrile) copolym ers . 179, 180 SB (styrene-butadiene) co p o lym e rs 179, 180 SBR (styrene-butadiene) ru b b e r 185 Scale fa c to rs 59 SCARA ro b o ts . 405Screw drive s y s te m s 222 Screw joints, c a lc u la tio n . 220 Screw joints, re p resentation . 85 Seals, re p resentation 81 Seamless tu b e s 141, 403 Seating pins 246 Section line, representation . 68 Section m odulus, axial 44 Section m odulus, p o la r 44 Section typ e s 68 Sectional re p re se n ta tio n s . 68, 69 S e n s o rs . 379 Separation by c u ttin g . 326 – 329 Series resistor c ir c u it 48 Serrations, representation . 82 Service life 290 Set screws w ith hexagon socket 219 Set screws, s lo tte d . 219 Set screws, w ith hexagon s o c k e t 219 Shape d im e n s io n in g 76 S h e a r . 43 Shear strength 40 Shear stress 43 Sheet m e ta l . 138 – 140 Sheet metal b e n d in g 331 Sheet metal types, o v e rv ie w . 138 Sheet m etal, cold-rolled 139 Sheet metal, hot-rolled 140 Sheet metals, hot-dip ga lva n ize d 140 Shewhart control c a r d 275 Shielding gases . 347 Shore hardness t e s t 188 Shrinkage 45 Shrinkage a llo w a n c e s 162 S im plified representation in d ra w in g s . 78 S in e . 19 Sintered m eta ls . 177 Sliding fric tio n 37 Slot te n o n s 247 Slots, d im e n s io n in g 74 Softw are co n tro lle rs 371 Solder jo in t s 356 S olders . 355 Solid lu b rica n ts . 268 Solid m a te ria ls 112, 113 Solids, characteristics . 1 1 2 , 113 Sonic te rm s 366 Sound le v e l 366 Specific cutting force, standard v a lu e s 295 Specific electrical resistivity 1 1 2 , 113 Speed g r a p h 297 Speeds o f m achin es 31 Sphere, d im e n s io n in g 73 Sphere, surface area and v o lu m e 26 Spherical segm ent, surface area and v o lu m e . 26 Spherical w a s h e rs . 247 S p h e ro id iz in g 153 Spiral, construction . 56 Splined s h a fts 239 Splines, re p re s e n ta tio n 82 Spring fo rce 33 Spring lock w a sh e rs 221 Spring p in s 236 Spring p lu n g e rs 249 Spring steel w ire 135 Spring w a shers . 221 Springback 333 Springs, re p resentation 82 Springs, tension springs, com pression springs, disc s p rin g s 242 – 244 Spur g ears 2 5 3 , 254 Square bars, h o t-ro lle d 143 Square prism , s u rfa c e 25 Square prism , v o lu m e 25 Square, a r e a 22 Square, d im e n s io n in g 72 Stainless s te e ls . 133, 134 Standard d e v ia tio n 274 Standard values fo r d rillin g 298 Standard values fo r grin d in g 317, 320 Standard values fo r h o n in g . 322 Standard values fo r m illin g . 305 Standard values fo r ream ing . 299 Standard values fo r screw thread c u ttin g 299 Standardization, publication o f ru le s . 8 Star k n o b s 246 Static fric tio n 37 Statistical a n a ly s is 273 Statistical analysis fo r process co n tro l 275 Statistical process c o n tro l 275 Steel chann el . 145 Steel products, standardization 117 Steel profiles, hot-rolled . 142 Steel tubes 141, 403 Steel tubes, welded, s q u a r e 150 Steel w ire fo r s p rin g s 135 Steel, p ro d u c ts . 123 Steels fo r bright steel products . 1 3 6 , 137 Steels fo r flam e and induction h a rd e n in g 131 Steels, alloying elem ents . 126 Steels, cla ssification 116 Steels, designation s y s te m 119 – 122 Steels, o v e rv ie w 124, 125 Steep taper shanks 240, 241 Strength calculation o f m a te ria ls 41 Strength o f m a te ria ls . 4 0 –44 Stress lim its 4 0 , 41 Stress relief a nne al 153 Strip steel, c o ld -ro lle d 139 Strip stock utilization in shear c u ttin g . 329 Structural steels, quenched and te m p e re d 128 Structural steels, selection . 126 Structural steels, u nalloye d . 127 Structured text ST . 389 Stub-Acm e threads 203 S tu d s . 218 Styrene isoprene rubber (SIR) 185 Sum o f angles in a tria n g le . 18 Supporting fo rce . 33 Surface a r e a . 25, 26 Surface te s tin g 94 Surface texture p ro file s 93 Surfaces 9 3 , 94 Sw itching co n tro lle rs . 371 Sym bols, m ath em atica l 13 Systems of fits 99 T T-slots . 247 Tackle . 35 Tally s h e e t 273 T a n g e n t . 19 Tap hole diam eters fo r tapping s c re w s . 217 Tap hole d r ill 204 Taper p in 236 Taper tu rn in g 302 Tapered keys 238 Tapered roller b e a rin g s 263 Tapered th re a d s . 205 Tapers, dim en sioning 73 Tapping screw threads 202 Tapping screw s 21 6 , 217Tapping, standard v a lu e s . 299 Technical d r a w in g 5 1 – 110 Tee, equal le g . 145 T e m p e ra tu re 45 Tem perature in K e lv in 45 T e n sile fo r c e 42 Tensile stress 42 Tensile test 191 Tensile test specim ens 191 Tension springs . 242 Theorem of intersecting lin e s 18 Therm al c o n d u c tiv ity . 1 1 2 , 113 Therm al conductivity, v a lu e s . 11 2 , 113 Therm odynam ic te m p e ra tu re 12 T h e rm o d yn a m ics 45, 46 The rm oplastics 182 – 184 Therm oplastics, a m o rp h o u s . 178 Therm oplastics, s e m i-crysta llin e 178 Therm oset plastics 181 Thread cutting, productive t im e 303 Thread form ing, standard v a lu e s 299 Thread ru n o u ts . 84 Thread tolerance . 207 Thread types, o v e rv ie w . 202, 203 Thread u n d e rcu ts . 84 Threadlockin g . 221 T h re a d s . 202 – 207 Threads, acc. to foreign sta n d a rd s . 203 Threads, d im e n s io n in g . 74 Threads, m ulti pi e-start 202 Threads, representation 85 Three-phase c u rre n t 49 Three-point c o n tro lle r 371 Thrust p a d s 245 T IG -w elding 343 T im e . 11 Tim ing belt p u lle ys 252 Tim ing belts 252 Title block in d ra w in g s 60 Toggle lo ca to rs . 249 Tolerance c la s s . 98 Tolerance g r a d e . 98 Tolerance specifications 75 Tolerances and f it s . 108 – 110 Tolerances of lo c a tio n 110 Tool and m achining data selection . 293 Tool holding fix tu re s 241 Tool offset in CNC m a c h in in g 409 Tool s te e ls 132 Tool steels, heat tre a tm e n t . 154 T ool-holding fix tu re s 241 Tooth lock w ashers . 221 T o rq u e . 34 Torsional stress . 43 Transform ers 50 Transition f i t s . 98 Transm ission r a tio s 256 Trapezoid, a re a . 22 Trapezoidal th re a d s 205 Triangle, a r e a . 22 Triangle, construction of the circum scribed circle 56 Triangle, construction of the inscribed circle . 56 Triangle, e q u ila te ra l 23 Trigonom etric functions 19 Trim stop w a s te . 328 Troubleshooting fo r tu r n in g . 302 Truncated pyram id, v o lu m e . 26 T u b e s . 150 Tubes, hot-rolled, square . 150 T urning . 304 Turning, forces and pow ers . 294 Turning, productive tim e 303, 304 Turning, roughness d e p th . 301 Turning, standard values . 301 Tw o-point co ntroller 371 Types of lo a d in g . 40 U UF (urea form aldehyde) . 1 7 9 , 180 Unalloyed steels, b rig h t 136 UNC th re a d 203 U n d e rc u ts 87 UNEF th re a d 203 Unequal-leg steel a n g le . 146 UNF th re a d 203 Unit p re fix e s 16 Units of m easurem ent . 10 – 12 Units, c o n v e rs io n . 16 UNS th re a d 203 UP (unsaturated p o lye ste r) 179, 180 Utilization of strip s to c k . 329 Utilization tim e acc. to R EFA 285 V V - b e lt 250, 251 V-belts, n a rro w . 251 Variable c o s ts . 288 V e lo c ity 30 Vibration te s t 221 Views in d ra w in g s 66, 67 Viscosity g ra d e s . 267 Viscosity, k in e m a tic . 400 V o ltage 4 7 , 48 Voltage d r o p . 48 Volum e o f com posite s o lid s 27 Volum e, c a lc u la tio n . 25 Volum e, u n its . 10 w, x W arning sig n s . 360 W ashers . 232 – 234 W ashers fo r channels and I-b e a m s . 234 W ashers fo r clevis p in s . 234 W ashers fo r steel s tru c tu re s 233 Washers, f la t . 232, 233 Washers, norm al se rie s 233 W aste m anagem ent la w s . 197 W aviness profile (W -p ro file ) . 93 W ear l i m i t 289 W eb w id th 328 W e d g e . 35 W e ig h t . 33 W eld design 349W eld nuts, hexagonal 231 W eld p re p a ra tio n . 345 W eldable fine-grain structural s te e ls . 128 W e ld in g . 3 4 3 -3 5 8 W elding and soldering, s y m b o ls . 8 8 -9 1 W elding positions . 344 W elding processes . 344 W elding, general to le ra n c e s . 344 W elds, re p re se n ta tio n 91 W hitw o rth th re a d s 206 W ide I-beams, (IP B ) 149 W ide I-beams, reinforced (IP B v) 149 W idths across flats, d im e n s io n in g 72 W ire EDM . 323 W ire electrodes 346, 347 W ork piece cornes and e d g e s . 83 W ork safety fo r robot s y s te m s 406 W ork-processing sheet 282 Work, e le ctrica l . 50 Work, m echanical . 34 W orm d r iv e 255 W rought alum inum alloys, heat tre a ta b le 166 W rought alum inum alloys, non-heat tre a ta b le . 165 W ro ught m agnesium a llo y s . 171 Xenon cylinders, color coding . 353
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