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 |  موضوع: كتاب Autodesk Inventor 2020 and Engineering Graphics An Integrated Approach السبت 27 فبراير 2021, 1:40 am | |
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Autodesk Inventor 2020 and Engineering Graphics An Integrated Approach
Randy H. Shih
Oregon Institute of Technology
و المحتوى كما يلي :
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments 11
Table ofContents m
Autodesk Inventor Certified User Examination Overview xv
Tips for Taking the Autodesk Inventor Certified User Examination xx
Chapter 1
Introduction
Introduction
Drawing in CAD Systems
Development of Computer Aided Design
Feature-Based Parametric Modeling
Getting Started with Autodesk Inventor
The Screen Layout and Getting Started Toolbar
The New File Dialog Box and Units Setup
The Default Autodesk Inventor Screen Layout
File Menu
Quick Access Toolbar
Ribbon Tabs and Tool Panels
Online Help Panel
3D Model Toolbar
Graphics Window
Message and Status Bar
Mouse Buttons
[Esc] - Canceling Commands
Autodesk Inventor Help System
Data Management Using Inventor Project Files
Setup of a New Inventor Project
The Content of the Inventor Project File
Leaving Autodesk Inventor
Chapter 2
Parametric Modeling Fundamentals
Introduction
The Adjuster Design
Starting Autodesk Inventor
The Default Autodesk Inventor Screen Layout
Sketch Plane - It is an XY Monitor, but an XYZ World
Creating Rough Sketches
Step 1: Creating a Rough Sketch
Graphics Cursors
2-101v Autodesk Inventor and Engineering Graphics
Geometric Constraint Symbols
Step 2: Apply/Modify Constraints and Dimensions
Dynamic Viewing Functions - Zoom and Pan
Modifying the Dimensions of the Sketch
Step 3: Completing the Base Solid Feature
Isometric View
Dynamic Rotation ofthe 3D Block - Free Orbit
Dynamic Viewing - Quick Keys
Viewing Tools - Standard Toolbar
Full Navigation Wheel
Display Modes
Orthographic vs. Perspective
Disable the Heads-up Display Option
Step 4-1: Adding an Extruded Feature
Step 4-2: Adding a Cut Feature
Step 4-3: Adding another Cut Feature
Save the Model
Review Questions
Exercises
Chapter 3
Constructive Solid Geometry Concepts
Introduction
Binary Tree
The Locator Design
Modeling Strategy - CSG Binary Tree
Starting Autodesk Inventor
Base Feature
GRID Display Setup
Model Dimensions Format
Modifying the Dimensions of the Sketch
Repositioning Dimensions
Using the Measure Tools
Completing the Base Solid Feature
Creating the Next Solid Feature
Creating a Cut Feature
Creating a Placed Feature
Creating a Rectangular Cut Feature
Save the Model
Review Questions
Exercises
3-31Chapter 4
Geometric Constructions
Geometric Constructions
Geometric Constructions - Classical Methods
Bisection of a Line or Arc
Bisection of an Angle
Transfer of an Angle
Dividing a Given Line into a Number of Equal Parts
Circle through Three Points
A Line Tangent to a Circle
Line Tangent to a Circle from a Given Point
Circle of a Given Radius Tangent to Two Given Lines
Circle of a Given Radius Tangent to an Arc and a Line
Circle of a Given Radius Tangent to Two Arcs
Starting Autodesk Inventor
Geometric Construction - CAD Method
Bisection of a Line or Arc
Dimensions and Relations
Applying Geometric/Dimensional Constraints
Bisection of an Angle
Dividing a Given Line into a Number of Equal Parts
Arc through Three Points
Line Tangent to a Circle from a Given Point
Circle of a Given Radius Tangent to Two Given Lines
Adding Geometric Relations and Fully Defined Geometry
Starting a New Drawing
Displaying Existing Constraints
Over-Constraining and Driven Dimensions
Deleting Existing Constraints
Using the Auto Dimension Command
Constraint and Sketch Settings
Parametric Relations
Dimensional Values and Dimensional Variables
Parametric Equations
Viewing the Established Parameters and Relations
Saving the Model File
Using the Measure Tools
Review Questions
Exercises
Chapter 5
Model History Tree
Introduction
The Saddle Bracket Design
Starting Autodesk Inventor
Table of Contents v
5-4v1 Autodesk Inventor and Engineering Graphics
Modeling Strategy
The Autodesk Inventor Browser
Creating the Base Feature
Adding the Second Solid Feature
Creating a 2D Sketch
Renaming the Part Features
Adjusting the Width of the Base Feature
Adding a Placed Feature
Creating a Rectangular Cut Feature
History-Based Part Modifications
A Design Change
Assigning and Calculating the Associated Physical Properties
Review Questions
Exercises
Chapter 6
Geometric Construction Tools
Introduction
The Gasket Design
Modeling Strategy
Starting Autodesk Inventor
Create a 2D Sketch
Edit the Sketch by Dragging the Sketched Entities
Add Additional Constraints
Use the Trim and Extend Commands
The Auto Dimension Command
Create Fillets and Completing the Sketch
Fully Constrained Geometry
Profile Sketch
Redefine the Sketch and Profile
Create an Offset Cut Feature
Review Questions
Exercises
Chapter 7
Orthographic Projection and Multiview Constructions
Introduction
Basic Principles ofProjection
Orthographic Projection
Multiview Orthographic Projection
First-Angle Projection
Rotation of the Horizontal and Profile Planes
The 3D Adjuster Model and lst Angle Projection
General Procedure: lst Angle Orthographic Projection
7-9Example 1: 1st Angle Orthographic Projection
Orthographic Sketching Exercises
Third-Angle Projection
Rotation ofthe Horizontal and Profile Planes
The 3D Adjuster Model and 3rd Angle Projection
The Glass Box and the Six Principal Views
General Procedure: 3rd Angle Orthographic Projection
Example 2: 3rd Angle Orthographic Projection
Example 3: 3rd Angle Orthographic Projection
3rd Angle Orthographic Sketching Exercises
Alphabet of Lines
Precedence ofLines
The U-Bracket Design
The BORN Technique
Starting Autodesk Inventor
Sketch Plane Settings
Apply the BORN Technique
Create the 2D Sketch for the Base Feature
Create the First Extrude Feature
The Implied Parent/Child Relationships
Create the Second Solid Feature
Create a Cut Feature
The Second Cut Feature
Examine the Parent/Child Relationships
Modify a Parent Dimension
A Design Change
Feature Suppression
A Different Approach to the Center_Drill Feature
Suppress the Rect_Cut Feature
Create a Circular Cut Feature
A Flexible Design Approach
View and Edit Material Properties
Drawings from Parts and Associative Functionality
Drawing Mode
Drawing Sheet Format
Using the Pre-defined Drawing Sheet Formats
Delete, Activate, and Edit Drawing Sheets
Add a Base View
Create Projected Views
Adjust the View Scale
Repositioning Views
Review Questions
Exercises
Table of Contents v11
7-87vm Autodesk Inventor and Engineering Graphics
Chapter 8
Dimensioning and Notes
Introduction
Dimensioning Standards and Basic Terminology
Selection and Placement ofDimensions and Notes
Machined Holes
Baseline and Chain Dimensioning
Dimensioning and Tolerance Accumulation
(1) Tolerance Accumulation - Baseline Dimensioning
(2) Tolerance Accumulation - Chain Dimensioning
(3) Avoid Tolerance Accumulation - Dimensioning Features
Dimensioning Tools in Autodesk Inventor
The U-Bracket Design
Starting Autodesk Inventor
Display Feature Dimensions
Repositioning and Hiding Feature Dimensions
Add Additional Dimensions - Reference Dimensions
Add Center Marks and Center Lines
Complete the Drawing Sheet
Associative Functionality- Modifying Feature Dimensions
3D Model Based Definition
Review Questions
Exercises
Chapter 9
Tolerancing and Fits
Precision and Tolerance
Methods of Specifying Tolerances - English System
Nomenclature
Example 7.1
Fits between Mating Parts
Selective Assembly
Basic Hole and Basic Shaft Systems
American National Standard Limits and Fits - Inches
Example 7.2 Basic Hole System
Example 7.3 Basic Hole System
Example 7.4 Basic Shaft System
Example 7.5 Basic Shaft System
Tolerancing - Metric System
Metric Tolerances and Fits Designation
Preferred ISO Metric Fits
Example 7.6 Metric Hole Basis System
Example 7.7 Shaft Basis System
Updating the U-Bracket Drawing
Determining the Tolerances Required
9-23Review Questions
Exercises
Chapter 10
Pictorials and Sketching
Engineering Drawings, Pictorials and Sketching
Isometric Sketching
Chapter 10 - Isometric Sketching Exercises
Oblique Sketching
Chapter 10 - Oblique Sketching Exercises
Perspective Sketching
One-Point Perspective
Two-Point Perspective
Chapter 10 - Perspective Sketching Exercises
Review Questions
Exercises
Chapter 11
Auxiliary Views and Reference Geometry
Introduction
Normal View of an Inclined Surface
Construction Method I - Folding Line Method
Construction Method II - Reference Plane Method
Partial Views
Work Features
Auxiliary Views in 2D Drawings
The Rod-Guide Design
Modeling Strategy
Starting Autodesk Inventor
Apply the BORN Technique
Creating the Base Feature
Create an Angled Work Plane
Create a 2D Sketch on the Work Plane
Use the Projected Geometry Option
Complete the Solid Feature
Create an Offset Work Plane
Create another Cut Feature Using the Work Plane
Start a New 2D Drawing
Add a Base View
Create an Auxiliary View
Display Feature Dimensions
Adjust the View Scale
Retrieving Dimensions in the Auxiliary View
Add Center Marks and Center Lines
Table of Contents 1x
11-35x Autodesk Inventor and Engineering Graphics
Complete the Title Block with iProperties
Edit the Isometric view
Review Questions
Exercises
Chapter 12
Section Views & Symmetrical Features in Designs
Introduction
General Rules of Section Views
Section Drawing Types
Full Section
Half Section
Offset Section
Broken-Out Section
Aligned Section
Half Views
Thin Sections
Revolved Section
Removed Section
Conventional Breaks
Ribs and Webs in Sections
Parts Not Sectioned
Section Views in Autodesk Inventor
A Revolved Design: Pulley
Modeling Strategy - A Revolved Design
Starting Autodesk Inventor
Set Up the Display of the Sketch Plane
Creating the 2D Sketch for the Base Feature
Create the Revolved Feature
Mirroring Features
Create a Pattern Leader Using Construction Geometry
Circular Pattern
Examine the Design Parameters
Drawing Mode - Defining a New Border and Title Block
Create a Drawing Template
Create the Necessary Views
Retrieve Model Annotations - Features Option
Associative Functionality - A Design Change
Add Centerlines to the Pattern Feature
Complete the Drawing
Review Questions
Exercises
12-45Chapter 13
Threads and Fasteners
Introduction
Screw-Thread Terminology
Thread Forms
Thread Representations
Detailed Representation
Schematic Representation
Simplified Representation
Thread Specification - English Units
Unified Thread Series
Thread Fits
Thread Specification - Metric
Thread Notes Examples
Specifying Fasteners
Commonly Used Fasteners
Drawing Standard Bolts
Bolt and Screw Clearances
Fasteners Using Autodesk Inventor's Content Center
Starting Autodesk Inventor
Review Questions
Chapter 14
Assembly Modeling and Working Drawings
General Engineering Design Process
Working Drawings
Detail Drawings
Assembly Drawings
Bill ofMaterials (BOM) and Parts List
Drawing Sizes
Drawing Sheet Borders and Revisions Block
Title Blocks
Working Drawings with Autodesk Inventor
Assembly Modeling Methodology
The Shaft Support Assembly
Additional Parts
Starting Autodesk Inventor
Placing the First Component
Placing the Second Component
Degrees of Freedom and Constraints
Assembly Constraints
Apply the First Assembly Constraint
Apply a Second Mate Constraint
Constrained Move
Apply a Flush Constraint
Table of Contents x1
14-23x11 Autodesk Inventor and Engineering Graphics
Placing the Third Component
Applying an Insert Constraint
Assemble the Cap-Screws
Exploded View of the Assembly
Editing the Components
Adaptive Design Approach
Delete and Re-apply Assembly Constraints
Setup a Drawing of the Assembly Model
Creating a Parts List
Edit the Parts List
Change the Material Type
Add the Balloon Callouts
Completing the Title Block Using the iProperties Option
Bill of Materials
Review Questions
Exercises
Chapter 15
Introduction to Stress Analysis
Introduction
Problem Statement
Preliminary Analysis
Maximum Displacement
Finite Element Analysis Procedure
Create the Autodesk Inventor Part
Create the 2D Sketch for the Plate
Assigning the Material Properties
Switch to the Stress Analysis Module
Apply Constraints and Loads
Create a Mesh and Run the Solver
Refinement of the FEA Mesh - Global Element Size
Refinement of the FEA Mesh - Local Element Size
Comparison of Results
Create an HTML Report
Geometric Considerations of Finite Elements
Conclusion
Summary of Modeling Considerations
Review Questions
Exercises
Appendix
A. Running and Sliding Fits - American National Standard
B. METRIC LIMITS AND FITS
C. UNIFIED NATIONAL THREAD FORM
15-28Table of Contents xm
D. METRIC THREAD FORM
E. FASTENERS (INCH SERIES)
F. METRIC FASTENERS
G. FASTENERS
H. REFERENCES
Index
A
A Line Tangent to a Circle, 4-9
Acme, 13-6
Activate Sheet, 7-80
Adaptive, 14-33
Add Sheet, 7-78
Add Symbol, 8-10, 8-41
Aligned Section, 12-8
Angle constraint, 14-18
Angled Work Plane, 11-17
Allowance, 9-4
Alphabet of Lines, 7-43
American National Standard Limits and
Fits - Inches, 9-8
Angle option, 4-19
Annotations, 8-34
ANSI, 8-4
File Menu, 1-14
Application Options, 7-48
Arc, 4-19
Area Measure Tool, 4-57
Arrowheads Inside, 12-41
Assembly drawing, 14-5
Assembly Mates, 14-18
Assembly Modeling Methodology, 14-9
Assign Materials, 15-13
Associative Functionality, 8-31
Auto Dimension, 6-13
Autodesk Inventor Resources, 1-17
Auxiliary view, 11-3, 11-28
Axonometric projection, 10-4
B
Balloons, 14-44
Baseline dimensioning, 8-15
Base Feature, 3-8
Base view, 7-81
Basic hole system, 9-7
Basic shaft system, 9-7
Basic size, 9-4
Bill ofMaterials, 14-46
Binary Tree, 3-4
Bisection of an Angle, 4-5
Autodesk Inventor and Engineering Graphics 1-1
INDEX
Bisection of a Line or Arc, 4-4
Boolean operations, 3-3
BORN technique, 7-47
Bottom Up approach, 14-9
Boundary representation, 1-8
Break Line, 7-43
Broken-Out Section, 12-7
BSI, 8-4
Buttons, Mouse, 1-16
Buttress, 13-6
c
Cavalier oblique, 10-6
Cabinet oblique, 10-6
CAD files folder, 1-20
Canceling commands, 1-16
Cap Screws, 13-16
Carriage bolts, 13-17
Center line, 7-43
Center Mark, 8-27
Center of Gravity, 5-22
Chain dimensioning, 8-15
CIRCLE command, 3-19
Circle ofa Given Radius Tangent to
Two Given Lines, 4-11
Circle ofa Given Radius Tangent to an
Arc and a Line, 4-12
Circle ofa Given Radius Tangent to
Two Arcs, 4-13
Circle through Three Points, 4-8
Circular Center Mark, 8-27
Circular Pattern, 12-39
Clearance, 9-4
Clearance fit, 9-6
Coincident, 2-11
Computer Aided Design, 1-5, 1-6
Computer Aided Drafting, 1-5, 1-6
Computer Aided Engineering, 1-5
Computer Aided Manufacturing, 1-5
Concentric, 2-11
Conceptual drawings, 14-4
Concurrent engineering, 1-8
Constrained Move, 14-221-2 Autodesk Inventor and Engineering Graphics
Constructive solid geometry, 1-8
Content Center, 13-19
Contour Rule, 8-6
Conventional Breaks, 12-10
Counterbore, 8-14
Countersink, 8-14
Create component, 14-31
Create Simulation, 15-11
Create Toolbar, 1-15
Crest, 13-4
Cut, 2-33, 2-34, 2-36
Cutting plane line, 7-44
D
Dashed line, 2-11
Degrees of Freedom, 14-16
Delete, 4-23, 4-32
Delete Features, 7-66
Delete Sheet, 7-80
Design Intent, 2-3
Detail drawing, 14-4
Drafting Standards, 12-32
Drawing Mode, 7-75
Drawing Resources, 7-78
Drawing sizes, 14-6
Dimension, Smart, 2-13
Dimension Line, 7-43
Dimensioning, 8-4
Dimetric projections, 10-5
DIN, 8-4
Display Modes, 2-25
Dividing a Given Line into a Number of
Equal Parts, 4-7
Document Settings, 3-12
Drafting machine, 4-3
Drag and Drop, 6-11
Driven dimensions, 4-39
Dynamic Viewing, 2-20
E
Edit Model Dimension, 8-32
Edit Parts List, 14-40
Edit Sheet, 7-80
Edit Sheet Formats, 12-29
Edit Sketch, 5-18
Edit View, 7-83
Engineering Design process, 14-3
Engineering drawing, 1-3
Engineering Graphics, 1-3
Environments, 15-11
Equations, 4-17, 4-26
ESC, 1-16
EXIT command, 1-16, 1-22
Exit Sketch, 2-19
Exploded View command, 14-28
Export Bill ofMaterials, 14-46
EXTEND command, 6-11
Extension line, 7-43
Extruded Feature, 2-16
Extruded Cut, 2-31
F
Fastener, 13-15
Feature-based, 1-8, 1-9, 2-3
Feature suppression, 7-65
FILLET command, 4-32
Finite Element Method, 15-2
Fits, 9-6
First angle projection, 7-6
First angle projection symbol, 7-7
Fixed Constraint, 15-14
Flush Constraint, 14-23
Folding Line Method, 11-6
Force, 15-15
Force or Shrink Fits, 9-12
Fully Define Sketch, 4-33
Full Section, 12-6
G
Geometric Construction, 4-3, 4-15
CAD Method, 4-15
Geometric Relations, 2-11, 4-17
Glass Box, 7-26
Graphics Window, 1-15
Grid Intervals setup, 3-9
H
Half Section, 12-6
HalfViews, 12-8
Heads-Up Display, 2-10
Help System, 1-17
Hex bolts, 13-16Hidden line, 7-43
History-based part modification, 5-17
Hole-Basis system, 9-19
Hole Tool, 3-25
Horizontal, 2-11
Insert Component, 14-19
Interference fit, 9-6
International tolerance grade, 9-17
Intersect, 3-3
iProperties, 5-21, 14-42
ISO, 8-4
ISO Metric Fits, 9-17
Isometric projections, 10-5
Isometric Sketching, 10-7
Isometric View, 2-17
J
JIS, 7-76, 8-4
Join, 3-3
K
Keys, 13-17
L
Lead, 13-5
Least Material Condition, 9-4
Left-hand Thread, 13-5
Limit - Stacked, 9-24
Limits and Fits, 9-8
LINE command, 5-7
Line Fit, 9-6
Lines of Sight, 7-4
Line Style, 7-44
Line Tangent To A circle from A GivenPoint, 4-10
Local Mesh Control, 15-20
Locational Clearance Fits, 9-9
Locational Interference Fits, 9-11
Look At, 5-18
M
Machine screws, 13-16
Machined hole, 8-12
Major Diameter, 13-4
Index I-3
Make Drawing from Part, 7-74
Mass Properties, 5-22, 15-10
Mate command, 14-17
Maximum Material Condition, 9-4
Measure Tools, 3-14
Measure Area 4-57
Mesh View, 15-16
Middle Out approach, 14-9
Midpoint, 5-10
Minor Diameter, 13-4
Mirror Feature, 12-11
Mouse Buttons, 1-16
Multiple Threads, 13-5
Multiview drawing, 7-3
N
NEW file, 1-12
Notes, 8-4
Nuts, 13-17
0
Oblique Projection, 10-5
Oblique Sketching, 10-19
OFFSET command, 6-23
Offset Work Plane, 12-7
Offset Section, 12-7
One-point perspective, 10-6, 10-27
Online Help, 1-14
Open a drawing, 7-8
Options, 4-15, 4-46
Origin, Center Point, 7-49
Orthographic projection, 7-4
Orthographic views, 7-5
p
PAN Realtime, 2-15
Paper sizes, 14-6
Parallel, 2-11
Partial Views, 11-10
Parts list, 14-5, 14-39
Perimeter Circle, 4-29
Perpendicular, 2-11
Perspective Projection, 10-6
Perspective Sketching, 10-26
Phantom line, 7-43
Physical Properties, 5-211-4 Autodesk Inventor and Engineering Graphics
Pictorials, 10-2
Pitch, 13-4
Pitch Diameter, 13-4
Place Component, 14-14
Point, 4-29
Precedence of Lines, 7-45
Precision, 9-2
Primitive Solids, 3-3
Principles ofProjection, 7-4
Profiles, 6-3
Profile Sketch, 6-18
Project Geometry, 11-18
Projected View, 7-82
Projection, 7-4
Proximity Rule, 8-6
Q
Quick Access Toolbar, 1-13
R
RECTANGLE command, 3-10
Reference Plane Method, 11-8
Region Properties, 3-15
Relations, 4-17
Removed Section, 12-9
Rename Features, 5-12
Report, 15-24
Reposition Dimensions, 3-13
Retrieve Dimensions, 12-36
Reverse Direction, 15-15
Revisions Block, 14-6
Revolved Feature, 12-18
Revolved Section, 12-8
Ribs and Webs in Sections, 12-10
Right-hand Thread, 13-5
Rivets, 13-17
Root, 13-4
ROTATE, 2-18
Rough Sketches, 2-9
Running or Sliding Clearance Fits, 9-8
s
SAVE command, 2-37
Screen, Autodesk Inventor, 1-13
Screw Thread, 13-4
Section Drawing Types, 12-6
Section line, 7-44
Section views, 12-3, 12-33
Select Other, 4-56
Select Dimensions, 11-33
Selective Assembly, 9-7
Set Screws, 13-17
Shaft-Basis system, 9-19
Sheet Formats, 7-76
Sheet metal screws, 13-17
Show Feature Dimensions, 7-63
Simulate, 15-16
Simulation Guide, 15-12
Single Dimension Line, 12-41
Six principal views, 7-26
Sketch Toolbar, 2-8
Sketching, 10-2
Sketching Plane, 2-8
Smart Dimension, 2-13
Socket screws, 13-17
Spotface, 8-14
Square thread, 13-6
Standard drawing paper sizes, 14-6
Starting Autodesk Inventor, 1-10
Status Bar, 1-15
Stress Analysis, 15-11
Studs, 13-16
Suppression, Feature, 7-65
Surface modelers, 1-8
Symmetric, 5-8
T
T-square, 1-3
Tangent, 2-11
Tangent Edges, 7-83
Tangent Edges Removed, 7-83
Task Panel, 1-13
Technical Drawing, 1-3
Templates, 12-32
Template File, 12-32
Text, 11-39
Thin Sections, 12-8
Third angle projection, 7-23
Third angle projection symbol, 7-24
Thread Fits, 13-13
Thread Forms, 13-6, 13-7
Threads per Inch, 13-4Thread Representations, 13-7
Thread, Screw, 13-4
Thread Spee., English Units, 13-1 1
Thread Spee., Metric Units, 13-13
Three-point perspective, 10-6
Title Block, 14-7
Tolerance, 8-16, 9-2
Accumulation, 8-17
Bilateral tolerances, 9-3
Limits, 8-17, 9-3
Metric, 9-17
Nomenclature, 9-4
Unilateral tolerances, 9-3
Toolbars, 1-13
Tools, 4-46
Top Down approach, 14-9
Transfer of an Angle, 4-6
Transition fit, 9-6
Transition Clearance or Interference
Fits, 9-10
TRIM command, 6-1 1
Trimetric projections, 10-5
Two-point perspective, 10-6, 10-28
u
UNDO command, 4-37, 4-44
Unified Thread Series, 13-6
Unified Screw Thread, 13-6
Union, 3-3
Units, 4-7
Units Setup, 2-5
Unsuppress, 7-65
Up To Next, 5-16
Update, 7-63
v
Vanishing point, 10-6
Vertical, 2-11
View Cube, 2-21
View Sketch Relations, 4-52
Viewing Toolbar, 2-2 1
Visible Line, 7-44
Visibility, 7-49
w
Washers, 13-17
Whitworth, 13-6
Wireframe Display, 4-56
Wireframe Modeler, 1-7
Wood screws, 13-16
Index I-5
Working Drawings, 14-4
World coordinate system, 7-49
z
Zoom, 2-15
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