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أخواني في الله أحضرت لكم كتاب A Textbook of Power Plant Engineering In SI Units For Engineering Students of Various Disciplines and Competitive Examinations (GATE, UPSC, etc.) By Er. R.K. RAJPUT M.E. (Hons.), Gold Medallist; Grad. (Mech. Engg. & Elect. Engg.) ; M.I.E. (India) ; M.S.E.S.I. ; M.I.S.T.E. ; C.E. (India) Recipient of : ‘‘Best Teacher (Academic) Award’’ ‘‘Distinguished Author Award’’ ‘‘Jawahar Lal Nehru Memorial Gold Medal’’ for an outstanding research paper (Institution of Engineers–India) Principal (Formerly): Thapar Polytechnic College Punjab College of Information Technology
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PATIALA INTRODUCTION TO SI UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS (xix)–(xxiv) 1. INTRODUCTION ... 1–19 1.1. Energy and Power ... 1 1.2. Sources of Energy ... 1 1.2.1. Fuels ... 2 1.2.2. Energy stored in water ... 5 1.2.3. Nuclear energy ... 5 1.2.4. Wind power ... 5 1.2.5. Solar energy ... 6 1.2.6. Tidal power ... 6 1.2.7. Geothermal energy ... 7 1.2.8. Thermoelectric power ... 7 1.3. Principal Types of Power Plants ... 7 1.4. Combustion of Fuels ... 8 1.4.1. Combustion chemistry ... 8 1.4.2. How to convert volumetric analysis to weight analysis ? ... 9 1.4.3. How to convert weight analysis to volumetric analysis ? ... 9 1.4.4. Weight of air required for complete combustion of fuel ... 9 1.4.5. Excess air ... 9 1.4.6. Weight of carbon in flue gases ... 10 1.4.7. Weight of flue gas per kg of fuel burnt ... 10 Worked Examples ... 10 Highlights ... 17 Theoretical Questions ... 18 Unsolved Examples ... 18 2. POWER PLANT CYCLES ... 20–57 2.1. Introduction ... 20 2.2. Classification of Power Plant Cycles ... 20 2.3. Carnot Cycle ... 20 2.4. Rankine Cycle ... 21 2.5. Modified Rankine Cycle ... 28 2.6. Reheat Cycle ... 31 2.7. Regenerative Cycle ... 35 2.8. Binary Vapour Cycle ... 40 2.9. Otto Cycle ... 44 2.10. Diesel Cycle ... 48 2.11. Dual Combustion Cycle ... 50 2.12. Gas Turbine Cycles ... 55 Highlights ... 55 Theoretical Questions ... 55 Unsolved Examples ... 56 Contents Chapter Pages ( v )Chapter Pages 3. STEAM POWER PLANT ... 58–217 3.1. Introduction ... 58 3.2 Classification of Steam Power Plants ... 59 3.3. Layout of a Modern Steam Power Plant ... 59 3.4 Essential Requirements of Steam Power Station Design ... 60 3.5. Selection of Site for Steam Power Station ... 60 3.6. Capacity of Steam Power Plant ... 62 3.7. Choice of Steam Conditions ... 62 3.8. Fuel Handling ... 63 3.8.1. Introduction ... 63 3.8.2. Requirements of good coal handling plant ... 63 3.8.3. Coal handling systems ... 64 3.8.4. Coal handling ... 64 3.8.5. Layout of a fuel handling equipment ... 68 3.9. Combustion Equipment for Steam Boilers ... 68 3.9.1. General aspects ... 68 3.9.2. Combustion equipment for solid fuels—selection considerations ... 69 3.9.3. Burning of coal ... 69 3.9.4. Burners ... 76 3.10. Fluidised Bed Combustion (FBC) ... 81 3.11. Ash Handling ... 82 3.11.1. Ash handling equipment ... 82 3.11.2. Ash handling systems ... 83 3.12. Dust Collection ... 85 3.12.1. Introduction ... 85 3.12.2. Removal of smoke ... 85 3.12.3. Removal of dust and dust collectors ... 86 3.12.4. Efficiency of dust collectors ... 88 3.12.5. Installation of dust collectors ... 88 3.12.6. Uses of ash and dust ... 88 3.12.7. General layout of ash handling and dust collection system ... 88 3.12.8. Flyash—Its composition, disposal and applications ... 89 3.13. Chimney Draught ... 90 3.13.1. Definition and classification of draught ... 90 3.13.2. Natural draught ... 90 3.13.3. Chimney height and diameter ... 91 3.13.4. Condition for maximum discharge through a chimney ... 92 3.13.5. Efficiency of a chimney ... 93 3.13.6. Draught losses ... 93 3.13.7. Artificial draught ... 93 3.13.8. Forced draught ... 93 3.13.9. Induced draught ... 94 3.13.10. Balanced draught ... 94 3.13.11. Advantages of mechanical draught ... 94 3.13.12. Steam jet draught ... 94 Worked Examples ... 94 3.14. Boilers ... 97 3.14.1. Introduction ... 97 3.14.2. Classification of boilers ... 97 3.14.3. Comparison between ‘fire-tube and water-tube’ boilers ... 98 3.14.4. Selection of a boiler ... 98 3.14.5. Essentials of a good steam boiler ... 98 ( vi )3.14.6. Boiler terms ... 99 3.14.7. Fire tube boilers ... 99 3.14.8. Water tube boilers ... 103 3.14.9. High pressure boilers ... 105 3.15. Accessories ... 111 3.15.1. Feed pumps ... 111 3.15.2. Injector ... 111 3.15.3. Economiser ... 112 3.15.4. Air preheater ... 113 3.15.5. Superheater ... 114 3.15.6. Steam separator ... 115 3.16. Feed Water Heaters and Evaporators ... 115 3.16.1. Feed water heaters ... 115 3.16.2. Miscellaneous heaters ... 117 3.16.3. Evaporators ... 117 3.16.4. Typical utility cycle layout ... 117 3.17. Performance of Boilers ... 118 3.17.1. Evaporative capacity ... 118 3.17.2. Equivalent evaporation ... 118 3.17.3. Factor of evaporation ... 119 3.17.4. Boiler efficiency ... 119 3.17.5. Heat losses in a boiler plant ... 119 3.18. Steam Nozzles ... 123 3.18.1. Introduction ... 123 3.18.2. Steam flow through nozzles ... 124 3.18.3. Discharge through the nozzle and conditions for its maximum value ... 124 3.18.4. Nozzle efficiency ... 126 3.18.5. Supersaturated or metastable expansion of steam in a nozzle ... 127 3.19. Steam Turbines ... 130 3.19.1. Introduction ... 130 3.19.2. Classification of steam turbines ... 131 3.19.3. Advantages of steam turbine over the steam engines ... 132 3.19.4. Description of common types of turbines ... 132 3.19.5. Methods of reducing wheel or rotor speed ... 133 3.19.6. Difference between impulse and reaction turbines ... 135 3.19.7. Impulse turbines ... 135 3.19.8. Reaction turbines ... 140 3.19.9. Turbine efficiencies ... 142 3.19.10. Types of power in steam turbine practice ... 143 3.19.11. Energy losses in steam turbines ... 143 3.19.12. Steam turbine governing and control ... 144 3.19.13. Special forms of turbines ... 146 3.20. Steam Condensers ... 157 3.20.1. Introduction ... 157 3.20.2. Vacuum ... 157 3.20.3. Organs of a steam condensing plant ... 157 3.20.4. Classification of condensers ... 157 3.20.5. Jet condensers ... 157 3.20.6. Surface condensers ... 159 3.20.7. Reasons for inefficiency in surface condensers ... 160 3.20.8. Comparison between jet and surface condensers ... 161 3.20.9. Selection of condenser ... 161 Chapter Pages ( vii )3.20.10. Sources of air in condensers ... 161 3.20.11. Effects of air leakage in condenser ... 161 3.20.12. Method for obtaining maximum vacuum in condensers ... 161 3.20.13. Vacuum measurement ... 162 3.20.14. Vacuum efficiency ... 162 3.20.15. Condenser efficiency ... 162 3.20.16. Determination of mass of cooling water ... 162 3.20.17. Heat transmission through walls of tubes of a surface condenser ... 163 3.20.18. Methods of cleaning condenser tubes ... 163 3.21. Cooling Ponds and Cooling Towers ... 164 3.21.1. Introduction ... 164 3.21.2. River or sea ... 164 3.21.3. Cooling ponds ... 164 3.21.4. Spray ponds ... 165 3.21.5. Cooling towers ... 165 3.21.6. Dry cooling towers ... 167 3.21.7. Maintenance of cooling towers ... 168 3.22. Feed Water Treatment ... 176 3.22.1. Classification of impurities in water ... 176 3.22.2. Troubles caused by the impurities in water ... 177 3.22.3. Methods of feed water treatment ... 178 3.22.4. pH value of water ... 181 3.23. Piping System ... 181 3.23.1. Requirements of steam piping system ... 181 3.23.2. Materials used for pipes ... 182 3.23.3. Insulation of steam piping ... 182 3.23.4. Steam pipe fittings ... 182 3.23.5. Pipe expansion bends ... 183 3.24. Advantages and Disadvantages of Steam Power Plants ... 183 3.25. Miscellaneous ... 184 3.25.1. Plant arrangement ... 184 3.25.2. Useful life of steam power plant components ... 185 3.25.3. Steam power plant pumps ... 185 3.25.4. Cost of steam power plant ... 185 3.25.5. Comparison of various types of power plants ... 186 3.25.6. Thermal power stations in India ... 187 3.25.7. Indian boilers act ... 187 Additional/Typical Examples ... 191 Highlights ... 206 Theoretical Questions ... 207 Unsolved Examples ... 208 Competitive Examinations Questions ... 212 4. DIESEL ENGINE POWER PLANT ... 218–264 4.1. Introduction ... 218 4.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Diesel Power Plants ... 218 4.3. Applications of Diesel Power Plant ... 219 4.4. Site Selection ... 219 4.5. Heat Engines ... 219 4.6. Classification of I.C. Engines ... 219 Chapter Pages ( viii )4.7. Different Parts of I.C. Engines ... 220 4.8. Terms Connected with I.C. Engines ... 220 4.9. Four Stroke Cycle Diesel Engines ... 221 4.10. Two Stroke Cycle Diesel Engines ... 222 4.11. Comparison of Four Stroke and Two Stroke Cycle Engines ... 223 4.12. Comparison Between a Petrol Engine and a Diesel Engine ... 223 4.13. Essential Components of a Diesel Power Plant ... 224 4.13.1. Engine ... 224 4.13.2. Air intake system ... 224 4.13.3. Exhaust system ... 225 4.13.4. Fuel system ... 225 4.13.5. Cooling systems ... 228 4.13.6. Lubrication systems ... 232 4.13.7. Engine starting system ... 234 4.13.8. Governing system ... 235 4.14. Combustion Phenomenon in C.I. Engines ... 235 4.15. Delay Period (or Ignition Lag) in C.I. Engines ... 237 4.16. Diesel Knock ... 237 4.17. Cetane Number ... 237 4.18. Basic Designs of C.I. Engine Combustion Chambers ... 238 4.19. Supercharging ... 239 4.20. Operation of a Diesel Power Plant ... 241 4.21. Types of Diesel Engine used for Diesel Power Plants ... 241 4.22. Layout of a Diesel Engine Power Plant ... 242 4.23. Performance of I.C. Engines ... 242 Worked Examples ... 248 Highlights ... 260 Theoretical Questions ... 261 Unsolved Examples ... 261 Competitive Examinations Questions ... 263 5. GAS TURBINE POWER PLANTS ... 265–322 5.1. Gas Turbines—General Aspects ... 265 5.2. Applications of Gas Turbine Plants ... 265 5.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Gas Turbine Power Plants Over Diesel and Thermal Power Plants ... 266 5.4. Site Selection ... 266 5.5. The Simple Gas Turbine Plant ... 267 5.6. Energy Cycle for a Simple-Cycle Gas Turbine ... 267 5.7. Performance Terms ... 268 5.8. Classification of Gas Turbine Power Plants ... 268 5.9. Classification of Gas Turbines ... 268 5.10. Merits of Gas Turbines ... 268 5.11. Constant Pressure Combustion Gas Turbines ... 269 5.11.1. Open cycle gas turbines ... 269 5.11.2. Methods for improvement of thermal efficiency of open cycle gas turbine plant ... 270 5.11.3. Closed cycle gas turbine (constant pressure or joule cycle) ... 273 5.11.4. Merits and demerits of closed cycle turbine over open cycle turbine ... 277 5.12. Constant Volume Combustion Turbines ... 277 5.13. Gas Turbine Fuels ... 278 Chapter Pages ( ix )5.14. Effect of Operating Variables on Thermal Efficiency ... 278 5.15 Combination Gas Turbine Cycles ... 280 5.15.1. Combined gas turbine and steam power plants ... 280 5.15.2. Combined gas turbine and diesel power plants ... 281 5.15.3. Advantages of combined cycle ... 282 5.16. Operation of a Gas Turbine ... 282 5.17. Gas Turbine Power Plant Layout ... 283 5.18. Components of a Gas Turbine Power Plant ... 283 5.19. Various Arrangements of Gas Turbine Power Plants ... 285 5.20. Effect of Thermodynamic Variables on Air Rate ... 288 5.21. Free-Piston Engine Plant ... 289 5.22. Relative Thermal Efficiencies of Different Cycles ... 290 Worked Examples ... 291 Additional/Typical Examples ... 304 Highlights ... 319 Theoretical Questions ... 319 Unsolved Examples ... 319 Competitive Examinations Questions ... 321 6. HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT ... 323–394 6.1. Introduction ... 323 6.2. Application of Hydro-electric Plants ... 324 6.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydro-electric Plants ... 324 6.4. Selection of Site for a Hydro-electric Plant ... 324 6.5. Essential Features/Elements of Hydro-electric Power Plant ... 325 6.5.1. Catchment area ... 325 6.5.2. Reservoir ... 325 6.5.3. Dam ... 325 6.5.4. Spillways ... 328 6.5.5. Conduits ... 330 6.5.6. Surge tanks ... 331 6.5.7. Prime movers ... 333 6.5.8. Draft tubes ... 333 6.5.9. Powerhouse and equipment ... 334 6.6. Classification of Hydro-electric Power Plants ... 334 6.6.1. High head power plants ... 334 6.6.2. Medium head power plants ... 335 6.6.3. Low head power plants ... 335 6.6.4. Base load plants ... 336 6.6.5. Peak load plants ... 336 6.6.6. Run-of-river plants without pondage ... 336 6.6.7. Run-of-river plant with pondage ... 336 6.6.8. Storage type plants ... 336 6.6.9. Pumped storage plants ... 336 6.6.10. Mini and microhydel plants ... 337 6.7. Hydraulic Turbines ... 337 6.7.1. Classification of hydraulic turbines ... 337 6.7.2. Description of various types of turbines ... 338 6.7.3. Specific speed of a turbine ... 348 6.7.4. Efficiencies of a turbine ... 350 6.7.5. Cavitation ... 351 6.7.6. Performance of hydraulic turbines ... 352 Chapter Pages ( x )6.7.7. Governing of hydraulic turbines ... 354 6.7.8. Selection of turbines ... 356 6.8. Plant Layout ... 357 6.9. Hydro-plant Auxiliaries ... 357 6.10. Cost of Hydro-plant ... 357 6.11. Average Life of Hydro-plant Components ... 358 6.12. Hydro-plant Controls ... 358 6.13. Electrical and Mechanical Equipment in a Hydro-plant ... 358 6.14. Combined Hydro and Steam Power Plants ... 359 6.15. Comparison of Hydro-power Station with Thermal Power Stations ... 359 6.16. Underground Hydro-plants ... 360 6.17. Automatic and Remote Control of Hydro-station ... 361 6.18. Safety Measures in Hydro-electric Power Plants ... 361 6.19. Preventive Maintenance of Hydro-plant ... 362 6.20. Calculation of Available Hydro-power ... 362 6.21. Cost of Hydro-power ... 362 6.22. Hydrology ... 362 6.22.1. Introduction ... 362 6.22.2. The hydrologic cycle ... 363 6.22.3. Measurement of run-off ... 363 6.22.4. Hydrograph ... 364 6.22.5. Flow duration curve ... 365 6.22.6. Mass curve ... 366 6.23. Hydro-Power Development in India ... 366 Worked Examples ... 367 Highlights ... 389 Theoretical Questions ... 390 Unsolved Examples ... 390 Competitive Examinations Questions ... 392 7. NUCLEAR POWER PLANT ... 395–431 7.1. General Aspects of Nuclear Engineering ... 395 7.1.1. Atomic structure ... 395 7.1.2. Atomic mass unit ... 396 7.1.3. Isotopes ... 397 7.1.4. Radioactivity ... 397 7.1.5. Nuclear radiation ... 397 7.1.6. Binding energy ... 399 7.1.7. Radioactive decay ... 399 7.1.8. Nuclear reactions ... 400 7.1.9. Nuclear cross-sections ... 401 7.1.10. Fertile materials ... 402 7.1.11. Fission of nuclear fuel ... 402 7.1.12. Nuclear fusion ... 404 7.1.13. Comparison of fission and fusion processes ... 404 7.2. Nuclear Power Systems ... 405 7.3. Nuclear Reactors ... 406 7.3.1. Introduction ... 406 7.3.2. Classification of nuclear reactors ... 406 7.3.3. Essential components of a nuclear reactor ... 407 7.3.4. Power of a nuclear reactor ... 410 7.4. Main Components of a Nuclear Power Plant ... 410 Chapter Pages ( xi )7.5. Description of Reactors ... 410 7.5.1. Pressurised water reactor (PWR) ... 410 7.5.2. Boiling water reactor (BWR) ... 411 7.5.3. CANDU (Canadian-Deuterium-Uranium) reactor ... 412 7.5.4. Gas-cooled reactor ... 413 7.5.5. Liquid metal cooled reactors ... 414 7.5.6. Breeder reactor ... 415 7.6. Selection of Materials for Reactor Components ... 415 7.7. Metals for Nuclear Energy ... 417 7.8. Advantages of Nuclear Power Plants ... 419 7.9. Nuclear-Plant Site Selection ... 420 7.10. Application of Nuclear Power Plants ... 422 7.11. Economics of Nuclear Power Plants ... 422 7.12. Safety Measures for Nuclear Power Plants ... 424 7.13. Nuclear Power Plants in India ... 424 7.14. Future of Nuclear Power ... 425 7.15. Useful by-products of Nuclear Power Generation and Their Uses ... 425 Worked Examples ... 426 Highlights ... 429 Theoretical Questions ... 430 Unsolved Examples ... 431 Competitive Examinations Questions ... 431 8. COMBINED OPERATION OF DIFFERENT POWER PLANTS ... 432–441 8.1. General Aspects ... 432 8.2. Advantages of Combined Operation of Plants ... 432 8.3. Load Division Between Power Stations ... 432 8.4. Hydro-electric (storage type) Plant in Combination with Steam Plant ... 434 8.5. Run-of-river Plant in Combination with Steam Plant ... 435 8.6. Pump Storage Plant in Combination with Steam or Nuclear Power Plant ... 435 8.7. Co-ordination of Hydro-electric and Gas Turbine Stations ... 436 8.8. Co-ordination of Different Types of Power Plants ... 436 Worked Examples ... 437 Theoretical Questions ... 440 Unsolved Examples ... 440 9. ECONOMICS OF POWER GENERATION ... 442–493 9.1. Introduction ... 442 9.2. Terms and Definitions ... 442 9.3. Principles of Power Plant Design ... 444 9.4. Location of Power Plant ... 444 9.5. Layout of Power Plant Building ... 445 9.6. Cost Analysis ... 445 9.7. Selection of Type of Generation ... 447 9.8. Selection of Power Plant Equipment ... 448 9.8.1. Selection of boilers ... 448 9.8.2. Selection of prime movers ... 448 9.8.3. Selection of size and number of generating units ... 449 9.9. Economics in Plant Selection ... 449 9.10. Factors Affecting Economics of Generation and Distribution of Power ... 451 9.11. How to Reduce Power Generation Cost ? ... 451 Chapter Pages ( xii )9.12. Power Plant—Useful Life ... 451 9.13. Economics of Hydro-electric Power Plants ... 452 9.14. Economics of Combined Hydro and Steam Power Plants ... 452 9.15. Performance and Operating Characteristics of Power Plants ... 453 9.16. Economic Load Sharing ... 454 9.17. Tariff for Electrical Energy ... 455 9.17.1. Introduction ... 455 9.17.2. Objectives and requirements of tariff ... 455 9.17.3. General tariff form ... 456 Worked Examples ... 458 Additional/Typical Examples ... 482 Highlights ... 484 Theoretical Questions ... 485 Unsolved Examples ... 485 Competitive Examinations Questions ... 491 10. NON-CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION AND DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION ... 494–535 10.1. Introduction to Energy and Energy Sources ... 494 10.1.1. Energy ... 494 10.1.2. Non-conventional energy sources ... 497 10.2. Wind Power Plants ... 497 10.2.1. Introduction ... 497 10.2.2. Characteristics of wind ... 497 10.2.3. Advantages and disadvantages of wind energy ... 497 10.2.4. Sources/Origins of wind ... 498 10.2.5. Wind availability and measurement ... 498 10.2.6. Wind power ... 499 10.2.7. Terms and definitions ... 500 10.2.8. Types of wind mills ... 501 10.2.9. Wind-electric generating power plant ... 502 10.2.10. Types of wind machines ... 503 10.2.11. Utilisation aspects of wind energy ... 503 10.2.12. Generating systems ... 504 10.2.13. Wind-powered battery chargers ... 505 10.2.14. Wind electricity in small independent grids ... 505 10.2.15. Wind electricity economics ... 505 10.2.16. Problems in operating large wind power generators ... 506 10.2.17. Considerations for selection of site for wind energy conversion systems ... 506 10.3. Tidal Power Plants—Ocean Energy Conversion ... 506 10.3.1. Ocean energy sources—General aspects ... 506 10.3.2. Tidal power plants ... 506 10.3.3. Wave energy ... 508 10.3.4. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) plant ... 509 10.4. Solar Power Plants ... 510 10.4.1. Solar energy—General terms and introduction ... 510 10.4.2. Collectors in various ranges and applications ... 511 10.4.3. Flat plate collectors ... 512 10.4.4. Focusing (or concentrating) collectors ... 513 10.4.5. Solar pond technology ... 513 10.4.6. Low temperature thermal power generation ... 514 10.4.7. Medium temperature systems using focusing collectors ... 516 10.4.8. High temperature systems—solar farm and solar power plant ... 516 Chapter Pages ( xiii )10.5. Geothermal Power Plants ... 516 10.5.1. Geothermal energy ... 516 10.5.2. Geothermal sources ... 517 10.5.3. Geothermal power estimates ... 518 10.5.4. Environmental problems ... 518 10.5.5. Applications of geothermal energy ... 518 10.5.6. Advantages and disadvantages of geothermal energy over other energy forms ... 518 10.5.7. Geothermal energy in India and abroad ... 518 10.6. Biogas Plants-Biomass ... 519 10.6.1. Introduction to biomass ... 519 10.6.2 Biomass conversion processes ... 519 10.6.3. Biogas plants ... 520 10.7. Direct Energy Conversion Systems ... 525 10.7.1. Thermoelectric conversion system ... 525 10.7.2. Thermionic conversion system ... 526 10.7.3. Photovoltaic power system ... 527 10.7.4. Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) system ... 529 10.7.5. Electrostatic mechanical generators ... 531 10.7.6. Electro gas-dynamic generators (EGD) ... 531 10.7.7. Fuel cells ... 532 10.7.8. Nuclear batteries ... 533 Highlights ... 534 Theoretical Questions ... 534 Competitive Examinations Questions ... 535 11. PLANT INSTRUMENTATION ... 536–557 11.1. General Aspects ... 536 11.2. Classification of Instruments ... 536 11.3. Pressure Gauges ... 537 11.3.1. Pressure ... 537 11.3.2. Types of pressure measurement devices ... 537 11.3.3. Mechanical type instruments ... 537 11.3.4. Electrical transducers ... 540 11.4. Thermometers ... 541 11.4.1. Temperature ... 541 11.4.2. Temperature measuring instruments ... 541 11.5. Liquid Level Gauges ... 545 11.5.1. Gauge glass ... 545 11.5.2. Electrical level gauges ... 546 11.6. Flow Meters ... 547 11.7. pH Measuring Instruments ... 547 11.8. Gas Analysers ... 547 11.9. Humidity Measuring Instruments ... 550 11.10. Impurity Measuring Instruments ... 552 11.11. Speed Measuring Instruments ... 553 11.12. Steam Calorimeters and Fuel Calorimeters ... 553 11.12.1. Steam calorimeters ... 553 11.12.2. Fuel calorimeters ... 555 Highlights ... 557 Theoretical Questions ... 557 Chapter Pages ( xiv )12. MAJOR ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT IN POWER PLANTS ... 558–629 12.1. Introduction ... 558 12.2. Generating Equipment ... 558 12.2.1. Classification ... 558 12.2.2. Two-wire direct current generators ... 558 12.2.3. Alternator current generators ... 577 12.3. Transformers ... 590 12.3.1. General aspects ... 590 12.3.2. Basic definitions ... 591 12.3.3. Working principle of a transformer ... 591 12.3.4. Transformer ratings ... 591 12.3.5. Kinds of transformers ... 592 12.3.6. Transformer construction ... 592 12.3.7. Transformer windings, terminals, tappings and bushings ... 594 12.3.8. Transformer cooling ... 596 12.3.9. Three phase transformer ... 597 12.3.10. Instrument transformers ... 603 12.3.11. Constant current transformers ... 605 12.4. Switchgear ... 605 12.4.1. Functions of a switchgear ... 605 12.4.2. Switches ... 605 12.4.3. Fuses ... 606 12.4.4. Circuit breakers ... 607 12.4.5. Types of switchgear ... 609 12.5. Protection of Electrical Systems ... 609 12.5.1. General aspects ... 609 12.5.2. Different types of relays ... 610 12.5.3. Alternator protection ... 612 12.5.4. Transformer protection ... 613 12.5.5. Bus protection ... 613 12.5.6. Protection of transmission lines ... 614 12.6. Short-circuits in Electrical Installations and Limiting Methods ... 615 12.7. Control Room ... 616 12.8. Earthing of a Power System ... 617 12.9. Electrical Equipment-Layout ... 619 12.10. Voltage Regulation ... 620 12.11. Transmission of Electric Power ... 620 12.11.1. System of transmission ... 620 12.11.2. Line supports ... 621 12.11.3. Conductor material ... 622 12.11.4. Line insulators ... 622 12.11.5. Distribution systems ... 622 12.11.6. Underground cables ... 623 12.12. Substations ... 624 12.12.1. Classification of substations ... 624 12.13. Indian Electricity Act ... 625 Highlights ... 627 Theoretical Questions ... 628 Competitive Examinations Questions ... 629 Chapter Pages ( xv )13. POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL ... 630–636 13.1. Introduction ... 630 13.2. Pollution from Thermal Power Plants ... 630 13.2.1. Gaseous emission and its control ... 630 13.2.2. Particulate emission and its control ... 632 13.2.3. Solid waste disposal ... 634 13.2.4. Thermal pollution ... 634 13.3. Pollution from Nuclear Power Plants ... 635 13.4. Pollution from Hydro-electric Power Plants and Solar Power Generating Stations ... 635 Highlights ... 636 Theoretical Questions ... 636 14. ‘GATE’ AND ‘UPSC’ EXAMINATIONS’ QUESTIONS (Latest-selected) WITH ANSWERS/SOLUTIONS ... 637–661 A. Conventional Questions with Answers/Solutions ... 637 B. Multiple-Choice Questions with Answers and “Explanations” ... 652 OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS BANK ... 663–688 INDEX ... 689–691 STEAM TABLES AND MOLLIER DIAGRAM (SI UNITS) ... 1–20 Chapter Pages CONTENTS Table No. Page No. 1. Saturated Water and Steam (Temperature) Tables I … (iv) 2. Saturated Water and Steam (Pressure) Tables II … (vi) 3. Superheated Steam at Various Pressures and Temperatures III … (xiv) 4. Supercritical Steam IV … (xviii) 5. Conversion Factors V … (xix) SYMBOLS AND UNITS USED IN THE TABLES t = Temperature, °C t s = Saturation temperature, °C p = Pressure, bar h f = Specific enthalpy of saturated liquid, kJ/kg h fg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation (latent heat), kJ/kg h g = Specific enthalpy of saturated vapour, kJ/kg s f = Specific entropy of saturated liquid, kJ/kg K s fg = Specific entropy of evaporation, kJ/kg K s g = Specific entropy of saturated vapour, kJ/kg K v f = Specific volume of saturated liquid, m3/kg v g = Specific volume of saturated steam, m3/kg A Air preheater, 113 Ash handling, 82 B Binary vapour cycle, 40 Boilers, 97 Babcock and Wilcox, 103 boiler terms, 99 classification of, 97 Cochran, 100 essentials of a good steam, 98 high pressure, 97, 105 – Benson, 108 – LaMont, 106 – Loeffler, 107 – Velox, 109 Lancashire, 101 Locomotive, 102 performance of, 118 – boiler efficiency, 119 – equivalent evaporation, 118 – evaporative capacity, 118 selection of, 98 simple vertical, 99 Striling, 104 supercharged, 110 supercritical, 109 Boilers Act (Indian), 187 C Cetane number, 237 Chimney draught, 90 artificial draught, 93 natural draught, 90 Chimney height, 91 Cinder catchers, 633 Coal, 2 analysis of, 2 properties of, 3 ranking of, 3 grading of, 3 Cooling ponds and cooling towers, 164 Cyclone burners, 77 D Diesel cycle, 48 Diesel engine power plant, 218 advantages and disadvantages, 218 applications, 219 essential components, 224 introduction, 218 layout, 242 operation, 241 Diesel knock, 237 Draft tubes, 333 Dual combustion cycle, 50 Dulong’s formula, 5 Dust collection, 85 E Economiser, 112 Economics of power generation, 442 cost analysis, 445 economic load sharing, 454 location of power plant, 444 selection of equipment, 448 terms and definitions, 442 Excess air, 9 F Feed pumps, 111 Feed water heaters, 115 Feed water treatment, 176 Index 689690 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING Fluidised bed combustion, 81 Fuels, 1 calorific values of, 4 classification of, 2 combustion of, 8 gaseous, 4 liquid, 3 solid, 3 Fuel cells, 532 G Gas burners, 80 Geothermal energy, 7 Generating equipment, 558 alternator current generators, 577 – constructional details, 578 – voltage regulation, 620 classification, 558 direct current generators, 558 electrical equipment-layout, 619 – double busbar system, 619 – ring busbar system, 620 – single busbar system, 619 protection of electrical systems, 609 – types of relays, 610 reactors, 615 substations, 624 switchgear, 605 – circuit breakers, 607 – functions of, 605 – fuses, 606 – switches, 605 transformers, 590 – cooling methods, 596 – current, 604 – kinds of, 592 – potential, 603 – three phase, 597 – windings, 594 – working principle, 591 Geothermal power plants, 516 Geothermal sources, 517 H Hydro-plant auxiliaries, 357 average life, 358 controls, 358 cost, 357 electrical and mechanical equipment, 358 underground hydro-plants, 360 Hydraulic turbines, 337 cavitation, 351 classification of, 337 governing of, 354 impulse turbines, 338 performance of, 352 reaction turbines, 341 selection of, 356 specific speed, 348 Hydrology, 362 flow duration curve, 365 hydrograph, 364 hydrologic cycle, 363 introduction, 362 mass curve, 366 I I.C. engines, 219 classification, 219 different parts of, 220 terms connected with, 220 Injector, 111 M MHD system, 529 N Nuclear batteries, 533 Nuclear fuel, 402 Nuclear fusion, 404 Nuclear power systems, 405 Nuclear radiation, 397 Nuclear reactions, 400 Nuclear reactors, 406 boiling water reactor, 411 breeder reactor, 407, 415 CANDU reactor, 412 essential components, 407 gas-cooled reactor, 413 liquid metal cooled reactors, 414 pressurised water reactor, 410 O Oil burners, 78 Otto cycle, 44 P Plant instrumentation, 536 flow meters, 547 fuel calorimeters, 555 gas analysers, 547 humidity measuring instruments, 550 impurity measuring instruments, 552 liquid level gauges, 545INDEX 691 pH measuring instruments, 547 pressure gauges, 537 speed measuring instruments, 553 steam calorimeters, 553 thermometers, 541 – optical pyrometers, 545 – radiation pyrometer, 545 – thermocouple thermometers, 543 R Rankine cycle, 21 Regenerative cycle, 35 Reheat cycle, 31 S Solar energy, 6 Solar power plants, 510 flat plate collectors, 512 focusing collectors, 513 solar pond technology, 513 Sources of energy, 1 Steam power plant, 58 accessories, 111 ash handling, 82 boilers, 97 capacity of, 62 classification of, 59 fuel handling, 63 – coal handling, 64 – layout of, 59 governing of, 144 – by-pass governing, 145 – nozzle governing, 145 – throttle governing, 144 layout of a, 59 pulverised fuel burners, 76 – cyclone burners, 77 – long flame burners, 76 – tangential burners, 77 – turbulent burners, 77 pulverised fuel firing, 73 steam condensers, 157 – condenser efficiency, 162 – jet condensers, 157 – surface condensers, 157, 159 – vacuum efficiency, 162 steam nozzles, 123 steam turbines, 130 – compounding, 133 – Parson’s reaction turbine, 141 – reaction turbine, 133 – simple impulse turbine, 132 Supercharging, 239 Surge tanks, 331 T Tangential burners, 77 Thermal discharge index (TDI), 634 Thermoelectric power, 7 Tidal power, 6 Tidal power plants, 506 classification of, 507 advantages and limitations of, 508 W Wind power plants, 497 types of wind mills, 501 wind availability and measurement, 498 wind-powered battery chargers, 505
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