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أخواني في الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Additives for Polyolefins - Getting the Most out of Polypropylene, Polyethylene and TPO Second Edition Michael Tolinski
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Contents Preface to the Second Edition . xi SECTION I OVERVIEW OF POLYOLEFINS AND ADDITIVES 1 Introduction . 3 1.1 Importance of Polyolefins . 3 1.2 Importance of Polyolefin Additives 4 1.3 Recent Issues in Using Additives . 4 1.3.1 Matching Property Requirements with Additive Type and Amount .5 1.3.2 Doing More with Less Material 5 1.3.3 New Properties for New Markets .6 1.3.4 Unintended Additive Interactions .6 1.3.5 Faster Processing .7 2 Trends in Polyolefin and Additives Use . 8 2.1 Polyolefin Market Trends . 8 2.1.1 Growth Versus Volatility 8 2.1.2 Future Resin Growth and Prices .9 2.2 Overall Trends in Additives Production and Use 9 2.3 Trends in Resin Compounding . 10 2.4 Trends in Specific Polyolefin Applications 10 2.4.1 Packaging Trends 11 2.4.2 Automotive Trends for Polyolefins 13 2.4.3 Construction and Infrastructure Application Trends 14 SECTION II ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE 3 Antioxidants and Heat Stabilization . 19 3.1 Importance of AOs and Stabilizers for Polyolefins . 19 3.2 Primary and Secondary AOs . 21 3.2.1 Primary AOs (Radical Scavengers) 22 3.2.2 Secondary AOs (Peroxide Decomposers) .23 3.3 Factors Determining AO Selection . 24 3.3.1 Thermal and Color Requirements in Melt Processing and in Service 26 3.3.2 AO Selection by Polyolefin Type and Finished Product Form .28 3.3.3 AO Physical Forms and Handling 28 v3.3.4 Synergies and Antagonistic Interactions 30 3.3.5 Costs 30 3.3.6 Environmental, Food Contact, and Health and Safety Considerations 31 4 Ultraviolet Light Protection and Stabilization 32 4.1 UV Degradation of Polyolefins 32 4.2 UV Blockers, Screeners, and Absorbers . 34 4.2.1 UV-Blocking and -Absorbing Fillers and Pigments 34 4.2.2 Organic UV Absorbers 36 4.3 Quenchers and Peroxide Decomposers . 36 4.4 HALS: Free-Radical Scavengers 37 4.4.1 Overview of HALS .37 4.4.2 Interactions of HALS and Other Additives 37 4.5 Factors Determining Stabilizer Selection . 40 4.5.1 General Factors .40 4.5.2 Light Stabilizers for Specific Polyolefin Applications 40 5 Flame-Retarding Additives 44 5.1 Overview: The Need for FR Formulations . 44 5.1.1 Trends in Flame-Retarding Additives 44 5.1.2 Mechanisms of Burning 45 5.2 Halogen-Based FRs . 45 5.2.1 Composition of H-FRs 45 5.2.2 Concerns About Halogenated FRs 48 5.3 Mineral-Based FRs 49 5.3.1 ATH and MDH .49 5.3.2 Other Mineral Fillers’ FR Effects .50 5.4 Intumescent and Phosphorous-Based FRs 50 5.4.1 Mechanisms of Phosphorous FRs .51 5.4.2 Issues in Improving Phosphorous FRs .51 5.5 Factors Determining the Selection of FR Additives 51 5.5.1 Cost, Risk, and Performance .53 5.5.2 Property Effects and Co-additive Interactions .53 5.5.3 FR Density and Form 54 5.5.4 Halogen-Free Benefits (and Costs) .55 6 Additives for Modifying Electrical Properties 57 6.1 Antistatic and ESD Additives . 57 6.1.1 Migrating Chemical Antistats .58 6.1.2 Nonmigrating Polymers as Permanent Antistatic/ESD Additives .61 6.1.3 Conductive Fillers as Antistatic/ESD Additives 62 6.2 EMI Shielding . 65 6.2.1 Conductive Fillers for EMI Shielding 65 6.2.2 Conductive Fibers for EMI Shielding 65 vi CONTENTS6.3 Choosing Antistat/ESD/EMI Additives 65 6.3.1 Antistat Selection Factors .65 6.3.2 Design Considerations for EMI Shielding 67 SECTION III MECHANICAL PROPERTY ENHANCEMENT 7 Overview of Fillers and Fibers 71 7.1 Importance of Fillers and Fibers for Polyolefins . 71 7.2 Common Inorganic Fillers 72 7.2.1 Calcium Carbonate 72 7.2.2 Talc 73 7.2.3 Wollastonite .74 7.2.4 Mica .74 7.2.5 Silica 75 7.2.6 Glass Flour and Spheres 75 7.2.7 Other Microfillers 76 7.3 Nanofillers . 76 7.3.1 Potential of Nanofillers .77 7.3.2 Platy Nanofillers 77 7.3.3 Nanotubes 78 7.3.4 Nanocellulose 79 7.3.5 POSS Nanomaterials .79 7.4 Impact Modifiers and TPOs 79 7.4.1 Impact Modification for Thick Products 80 7.4.2 Impact Modification for Film and Sheet 81 7.5 Fiber Reinforcement 82 7.5.1 Short Glass Fibers .82 7.5.2 Long Glass Fibers .83 7.5.3 Plant-Based Fibers .85 7.5.4 Other Kinds of Fiber Reinforcement 87 8 Factors Determining the Selection of Fillers and Fibers . 89 8.1 Cutting Costs and Improving Properties with Fillers . 89 8.2 Impact Modification: Balancing Stiffness with Toughness . 91 8.3 Mechanical Reinforcement: Properties Create Opportunities 93 8.4 Processing Pitfalls and Hidden Costs . 95 8.5 Questions When Choosing Fillers and Fibers 98 SECTION IV APPEARANCE ENHANCEMENT 9 Colorants 103 9.1 Coloring Strategies 103 9.1.1 White Colorants .104 9.1.2 Black Colorants .104 9.1.3 Full Spectrum Colorants .105 9.1.4 Metallic Colorants .107 9.1.5 Pearlescent Colorants and Color-Enhancing Additives .109 CONTENTS vii9.2 Colorant Delivery and Processing 110 9.2.1 Colorant Delivery . 110 9.2.2 Processing Issues with Colorants . 111 9.3 Factors That Affect the Choice of Colorant 112 9.3.1 General Factors 112 9.3.2 Additive/Colorant Interactions . 114 9.3.3 External Coatings Versus Internal Colorants 115 10 Nucleation and Clarity . 117 10.1 Nucleating Agents: Overview . 117 10.1.1 Nucleating Agent Effects on Processing and Properties 118 10.1.2 Clarifying Agents 121 10.2 Factors in Choosing Nucleating/Clarifying Agents . 122 10.2.1 Applications and Resins 122 10.2.2 Practical Use Factors .124 SECTION V PROCESSING AIDS 11 Processing Aids for Molding . 129 11.1 Melt Flow Modification and Mold Release . 129 11.1.1 Melt Flow-Enhancing Lubricants and Modifiers .129 11.1.2 Mold Release Additives 132 11.2 Special Cases for Processing Aids in Molding 133 11.2.1 Aids for Molding Highly Filled Compounds .133 11.2.2 Aids for Injection Stretch Blow Molding .134 11.2.3 Aids for Rotational Molding .134 12 Processing Aids for Extrusion . 135 12.1 Requirements of Extrusion-Based Processes 135 12.2 Slip Agents 135 12.3 Antiblocking Agents . 137 12.3.1 Inorganic Antiblocks .137 12.3.2 Organic Antiblocks .138 12.3.3 Clarity/Slip Antiblocks 140 12.4 Additives for Reducing Melt Fracture and Die Buildup 141 12.4.1 Fluoropolymer Processing Aids 141 12.4.2 Reducing Die and Screen Pack Fouling .142 12.5 Processing Aids for Specific Extrusion Situations . 142 12.5.1 High-Throughput Extrusion 143 12.5.2 LLDPE Blown Film Stability .143 12.5.3 Oriented PP Slit Tape Fibrillation 143 12.5.4 Thin PP Fibers .143 12.5.5 Highly Filled Masterbatch Production 143 12.5.6 Wood-Plastic Composites .144 viii CONTENTSSECTION VI OTHER MODIFICATIONS OF FORM AND FUNCTION 13 Reducing Density: Polyolefin Foams 147 13.1 Blowing Foams: Chemical Agents Versus Physical Agents 147 13.1.1 Physical Foaming Agents 148 13.1.2 Chemical Foaming Agents 148 13.2 Product Sectors Requiring CFAs 149 13.2.1 Molded Packaging and Consumer Products .149 13.2.2 Automotive Moldings .149 13.2.3 Extruded Construction Products .151 13.2.4 Foaming in Rotational Molding 152 13.3 Factors in Blowing Better Foams . 152 14 Coupling and Compatibilizing 153 14.1 Coupling Fillers and Fibers with the Polyolefin Matrix 153 14.1.1 Traditional Coupling Agents .153 14.1.2 Alternative Coupling Agents 155 14.1.3 Coupling Agents: Special Situations 155 14.2 Compatibilizers for Integrating Regrind and Recycled Materials . 156 15 Cross-Linking 159 15.1 Cross-Linked PE: Advantages and Applications 159 15.2 Cross-Linking Agents . 160 15.2.1 Peroxide-Based Agents .160 15.2.2 Silane-Based Agents .160 15.2.3 Radiation-Induced Cross-Linking .161 15.3 Factors in Choosing Cross-Linking Agents 162 16 Sterilization and Radiation Resistance . 163 16.1 Sterilization Effects on Polyolefin Products . 163 16.1.1 Effects of Irradiation Sterilization 163 16.1.2 Effects of EtO Sterilization .164 16.1.3 Effects of High Temperature Sterilization .164 16.2 Additive Solutions for Sterilization-Resistant Polyolefins . 164 17 Aesthetics Enhancement and Surface Modification . 166 17.1 Antiscratch Additives 166 17.1.1 Conventional Antiscratch Approaches .166 17.1.2 Evaluating Antiscratch Additives .167 17.1.3 Alternative Antiscratch Additives .167 17.2 Antifogging Agents . 168 17.3 Antimicrobials and Biocides . 169 17.4 Odor-Modifying Additives 170 CONTENTS ix18 Gas Barrier Properties Enhancement 171 18.1 Polyolefin Additives as Barriers to Water Vapor Transmission 171 18.2 Oxygen Transmission and the Scavenging Effects of Additives . 171 18.2.1 Additives as Oxygen Barriers .171 18.2.2 Oxygen-Scavenging Additives 172 18.3 Additives for Controlling Other Gases . 173 SECTION VII CONCLUSION: INCORPORATING ADDITIVES 19 Adding Additives to Resin . 177 19.1 Handling Additives . 177 19.1.1 Practical Handling Issues 177 19.1.2 Health and Safety Issues .178 19.2 Mixing and Dispersing Additives into Resin . 178 19.2.1 Screw-Processing Developments 178 19.2.2 “Lean” Compounding .179 19.3 Blending and Feeding Additives . 179 19.4 Choosing the Best Form of an Additive . 180 20 Choosing Additives for Sustainability 183 20.1 Factors That Make Polyolefins Sustainable . 183 20.2 Characteristics of Sustainable Polyolefin Additives 184 20.3 Examples of “Green” Uses of Additives in Polyolefin Materials . 185 20.4 Additives for Promoting Polyolefin Biodegradability: Questions and Concerns 186 20.4.1 Background and Examples 186 20.4.2 Arguments Related to Biodegradability Additives .188 20.5 Lessons to Learn for Choosing Sustainable Additives for Polyolefins . 189 References . 191 Index . 215 Index Note: Page numbers followed by “f,” “t,” and “b” refer to figures, tables, and boxes, respectively. A Abaca fiber, 87 Absorbers, UV light, 36 Acid scavengers and neutralizers, 22, 2930 hydrotalcite antacids, 22, 30 metal stearates, 2930. See also Stearates, metal Additive interactions, 6, 28, 30, 3740, 97 Additives faster processing, 7 growth of, 910 handling of, 2830, 177178 health and safety issues. See Health, safety, and the environment importance of, 4 issues with, 47 matching property requirements, 5 mixing and feeding of. See Tooling and equipment, process new properties for new markets, 6 physical forms of, 2830, 177178. See also Masterbatches prices of, 10 sustainability of, 183 trends in uses of, 10 unintended interactions, 6 volume in products, 56 Aesthetics enhancement and surface modification. See also Antiscratch additives by antifogging agents, 168169 by antimicrobial agents/biocides, 169170 odor-modifying additives, 170 Agave plant, 87 Agricultural film, case, 15b Aluminum trihydrate, 49 Amines, ethoxylated (EA), 60 Antiblocking additives, 185186 blocking force, measuring, 137 calcium carbonate. See Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) clarity/slip antiblocks, 140141 diatomaceous earth (DE), 137138 nepheline syenite, 138 organic antiblocks, 138140 pyrophyllite, 138 recycled glass powder, 138 silica, synthetic, 137138. See also Silica talc. See Talc Antifogging agents, 168169 evaluating effectiveness of, 168 migrating agents, 168169 Antimicrobial and antifungal agents, 169170 growth and use of, 12, 14, 169170 hospital acquired infections and, 169 pest repellents, 170 silver-ion based, 169170 Antimony trioxide (Sb2O3), 4647 Antioxidants (AOs) and heat stabilization, 10, 1920, 163 acid scavengers. See Acid scavengers and neutralizers biological-based, case, 31b degradation mechanisms. See Autoxidation factors determining selection of, 2431 costs, 3031 environmental effects, 31 food contact approvals, 31 health and safety, 31 physical forms and handling, 2830 polyolefin type and finished product form, 28 synergies and antagonistic interactions, 30 thermal and color requirements, 2628 gas fading, 27, 30 melt processing stabilization, 21f metal deactivators, 30 oxidative induction time (OIT), 26, 29 primary AOs (radical scavengers), 2124 commercial AO, examples, 25t hindered amine light stabilizers (HALS) as, 2223, 27, 30, 164. See also Ultraviolet (UV) light stabilization hindered phenols, 22 sulfurbridged, 29 hydroxylamines, 23 lactones (benzofuranones), 23 phenol-free AOs, 2223, 27, 164 vitamin E (α-tocopherol), 22, 31 secondary AOs (peroxide decomposers) commercial, examples, 26t phosphite-based, 23 thioester-based, 24 tris(nonylphenyl) phosphite (TNPP), 2324 stabilizer packages for pressure pipe, case, 28b synergies of, 30 wire and cable, usage in, case, 29b Antiscratch additives conventional, 166167 evaluation of, 167 micronized talc, 167 migratory, 167 nonmigratory, 167 polymerization processes, 168 Antistatic additives, 10, 5764. See also Electrostatic discharge/ dissipation (ESD) approaches used for, 58t conductive fillers as, 6264, 63f external agents, 5860 factors in selecting, 6566 food use restrictions for, 66 migrating, 5861, 6567 amides (lauric diethanolamide, LDA), 6061 amines, ethoxylated (EA), 60 glycerol esters, 66 glycerol monostearate, GMS), 61 polyglycerol esters (PGEs), 61 215Antistatic additives (Continued) nonmigrating (permanent), 5862 carbon nanotubes and graphenes, 64 conductive fillers (carbon black), 5860, 6264 inherently conductive polymers (ICPs), 62 inherently dissipating polymers (IDPs), 61 percolation threshold, 6263 representative property values for, 59t, 60t resistivity of, 5758 selection factors for, 6566 Artificial turf stabilization, 38b Automotive trends engineering composite, 13 lighter weights, 13 lower costs, 13 paint-free colored surfaces, 13 recyclability and sustainability, 13 stiffness and low temperature impact, 13 Autoxidation, 1920, 3233 chain scission caused by, 20, 32 cross-linking caused by, 20, 32 Azodicarbonamide (ADCA), 148 B Bamboo, 8687 Barium sulfate (barytes, blanc fixe), 7677 Barrier properties. See Gas barrier additives Basalt mineral fibers, 87 Benzophenones, as UV absorbers, 36 Benzotriazoles, as UV absorbers, 36 Biocides. See Antimicrobial and antifungal agents Biodegradability, 186189 arguments related, 188189 “d2w” additive, 188 Evive’s “P-Life,” 188 hurdle, 187 ironic molecules, 186 lightweighting parts and improving recyclability, 186 oxodegradability, 187188 phoenix plastics, 188 suppliers and converters, 187 Black colorants, 104105 Blockers, UV light, 3436 Blow molding, 111 Blowing agents. See Foams and foaming agents Blue pigmentation, 105 Boron nitride, 76 C Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), 910, 40, 50, 7273, 89, 185 as an antiblock, 138 combined with other fillers, 50 as a nucleating agent, 121 Carbon black (CB), 6364, 98. See also Antistatic additives Carbon fibers, 65, 87 Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), 64 Carbon-based platy nanofillers, 78 Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), 79 Chain scission. See Autoxidation Chemical foaming agents, 148149 automotive moldings, 149151 in cork design, 150b cost savings, 150b endothermic/inorganic, 149 exothermic/organic, 149 extruded construction products, 151 microcapsule foams, 149 molded packaging and consumer products, 149 rotational molding, 152 Clarifiers. See Nucleating agents (nucleators) and clarifiers Clarifying agents/clarified PP (cPP) DMDBS alternatives, 122 evaluating new clarifying agents, 123b factors in choosing for applications and resins, 122124 cost, 124125 organoleptic side effects, 125 processing side effects, 125 regrind/recycling reuse, 125 organophosphate, 122 Colorants, 101 black pigments, 104105 carbon black, 104 mineral pigments, 105 delivery and form of, 110111 dyes, 105, 107, 110 factors in selecting additive/colorant interactions, 114115 color evaluation, 112 external vs. internal colorants, 115116 gloss, 113 interactions, 114115. See also Additive interactions metamerism, 112 organic versus inorganic pigments, 112 paints and coatings, 115 pigment particle size, 113 pigments versus properties, 112113 pigment versus filler/fiber, 112 product thickness, 114 regulatory issues, 114 thin colored films, 115116 weatherability, 113 fluorescent, 109 full spectrum colorants, 105107 granite, 110 laser marking, 116 “liquid color,” 110 metallic colorants, 107109 aluminum, 108109 stainless steel, 107108 organic and inorganic, 106t pearlescent and special effects colorants, 109110 mica flakes, 107110. See also Mica for pharmaceutical packaging, 114b phosphorescent, 110 pigments, 6, 105107 inorganic, 105 organic, 105107 processing of, 111112 testing of color, 112 white pigments, 104 barium sulfate, 104. See also Barium sulfate titanium dioxide, 104. See also Titanium dioxide (TiO2) zinc sulfide, 104 wood grain, 110 Commodity plastics. See Polyolefins (polyethylene and polypropylene) Compatibilizers, 153, 156158 in automotive moldings, 157b copolymers (olefin block) as, 157 coupling agents as, 157158. See also Coupling agents mixed polymer scrap, 158 for recycling, 156158 Compounding, 95, 111 “Lean” compounding, 179 trends in, 10. See also Direct extrusion and compounding Construction and infrastructure higher throughputs and quality, 14 high temperatures and flame retardance, 14 longer lifespans, 14 Controlled rheology polypropylene. See Processing aids Coupling agents, 14, 49, 153156 alternative agents, 155 compatibilization. See Compatibilizers for glass fibers, 82, 154 for impact modification, 81 in long glass fiber polypropylene, 154b maleic anhydride (MA), 153 maleic anhydride-grafted, 86, 153 for mineral fillers, 72, 7475 for nanocomposites, 71, 155 organosilane coupling agents, 154 216 INDEXfor plant based fibers, 7276, 155 quaternary ammonium, 78, 155156 silane-based agents, 49, 7274, 155 titanates and zirconates, 49, 152, 155, 158 for wood-plastic composites (WPC) processing, 155 Cross-linking, 19, 29b, 159. See also Autoxidation crosslinking PP, 161 factors in processing, 162 interactions, 160. See also Additive interactions organic peroxide agents, 160 peroxide agents, 160 polyethylene (PE), 159160 properties of cross-linked PE, 159160 radiation-induced, 161162 silane based agents, 160161 Curaua plant, 86 Cyclic olefin copolymers (COCs) for barrier applications, 172 as processing aid, 136137 for retortable packaging, 165b D Degradation, 19 Dense fillers, 76 Design of experiments (DoE), 5, 98, 140141 Diatomaceous earth (DE). See Silica Dibenzylidene sorbitol (DBS), 122 1,2,3,4-Di-para-methylbenzylidene sorbitol (MDBS), 122 Direct extrusion and compounding of long glass fibers, 84 of wood fiber and flour, 85 E Electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, 58t, 65 additives for carbon black, 65. See also Antistatic additives conductive fibers, stainless steel and carbon, 65 conductive fillers, 65 coupling agents, use of, 65. See also Coupling agents metal fillers, 65 design considerations for, 67 factors in selecting, 6566 Electron beams (E-beams), 161162 Electrostatic discharge/dissipation (ESD) additives for. See Antistatic additives definition of, 57 Environmental issues. See Health, safety, and the environment; Recycling Ethyl diamine phosphate (EDAP), 51 Ethylene oxide, 164 F Fatty acid primary amides, 135136 Fiber reinforcement, 69, 8288 carbon fiber, 87 coupling agents for. See Coupling agents direct extrusion (inline compounding) of. See Direct extrusion and compounding factors determining selection of costs or benefits, 96 formulation and processing parameters, 98 handling and mixing challenges, 9597 interactions with other additives, 97 material properties, 96 quality check, 96 recyclability, 98 glass fiber, 4, 8285, 89, 95, 184185 glass mat thermoplastic (GMT), 8485 long fibers, 8385, 94b molding with, 84 orientation of fibers, 8384 short fibers, 8283, 94b importance of, 7172 Kevlar, 87 metal, 87 mineral and metal fibers, 87 plant-based fibers, 56, 8587. See also Wood-plastic composites (WPCs) polymer based fibers, 88 polyvinyl alcohol, 88 self-reinforced PP, 88 UV light stabilizer, 40 Fillers, 69 barium sulfate. See Barium sulfate conductive. See Antistatic additives factors determining selection of, 89 costs or benefits, 96 cutting costs and improving properties, 8991 formulation and processing parameters, 98 handling and mixing challenges, 9597 impact modification, 9193 interactions with other additives, 97 material properties, 96 mechanical reinforcement, 9395 quality check, 96 recyclability, 98 flame retarding. See Flame retardants (FR) importance of, 7172 inorganic boron nitride, 76 calcium carbonate, 7273 dense fillers, 76 glass flour, 75 glass spheres, 75 magnetite, 76 metal flake pigments, 76 mica, 74 silica, 75 synthetic mineral filler, 76 talc, 7374, 73t wollastonite, 74 metallic, 76. See also Colorants metal oxides, 76. See also Titanium dioxide mica. See Colorants; Mica mineral fillers (micron scale), 72, 76, 185 nanofillers, 3940, 7679, 95 exfoliation and dispersion of, 77 graphenes, 78 health and safety questions about, 77 nanocellulose, 79 nanotubes, 7879 plate-like, 7778 POSS nanomaterials, 79 potential of, 77 nucleating, 121 Flame retardants (FR), 14, 44 ammonium polyphosphate, 51 cost of, 53 EDAP (ethyl diamine phosphate), 51 flammability test standard, 46t FR types comparison, 52t halogen-based, 45 chlorinated paraffin, 47 combustion reaction prevention, 45 composition, 4547 concerns about and regulation of, 4549, 52t, 55b, 56b, 184185 decaBDE (decabromodiphenyl ether), 4546, 48 FR/HALS alternative, 48b FR products, 47t human health, 48 regulators, 48 interactions with, 4849, 52. See also Additive interactions issues and improvement of, 51 low halogen FR, 56b markets and growth of, 4445 mechanisms of, 45, 51 melamine, 51 mineral based, 4950 antimony oxide synergists, 4647, 50, 55b ATH (aluminum trihydrate), 4950, 54, 98 combinations of mineral fillers, 50 huntite, 50 hydromagnesite, 50 MDH (magnesium (di)hydroxide), 4950, 54 INDEX 217Flame retardants (FR) (Continued) nanocomposites, flame retardance of, 5455 pentaerythritol, 51 phosphorous-based (intumescent), 5051 PP fiber and H-FR color issues, case, 55b selection of, 5156 FR density and form, 5455 halogen-free benefits and costs, 5556 property effects and co-additive interactions, 5354 risk versus performance, 52 smoke, 53 smoke suppression of, 53 testing of, 46t, 53 trends in, 4445 Fluorescent whitening agents, 109 Fluoropolymer polymer processing aids (PPAs), 141142 Foams and foaming agents, 13, 99b, 145 blow molding, 149 chemical (internal) foaming agents, 148149 azodicarbonamide (ADCA), 148149, 152 inorganic endothermic agents, 149 microcapsule foams, 149 organic exothermic agents, 149 sodium bicarbonate, 149 costs, 150b, 152 expanded polypropylene, 151 extruded foamed products, 151 factors in foaming, 152 injection molding and, 149 nanoclay effects, 152 physical foaming agents, 148 rotational molding and, 152 structural foam, 149 G Gas barrier additives, 1112, 123, 171 oxygen barrier additives, 171172 cyclic olefin copolymers, 172. See also Cyclic olefin copolymers (COCs) nanofillers as, 172 oxygen scavenger additives, 172173 water/moisture barrier additives, 171 nucleating agents, 171 talc, 171 Gas fading. See Antioxidants (AOs) and heat stabilization Glass additives fibers. See Fiber reinforcement flour, 75 spheres, 7576, 99b Glass-mat thermoplastics (GMT), 8485 Glycerol monostearate (GMS), 61 Granite colorants, 110 “Green Chemistry,” principles of, 13, 184 Green phenol-free stabilizer, 165b Green pigmentation, 105 H Halogen-based FR additives combustion reaction prevention, 45 composition, 4547 FR/HALS alternative, 48b FR products, 47t human health, 48 regulators, 48 HALS (hindered amine light stabilizers), 2223. See also Ultraviolet (UV) light stabilization degradation, 37 interactions with additives, 3740 acidic coatings/foreign materials, 39 antioxidants and, 39 flame retardants, 39 nanofillers, 3940 with pigments, 39 with titanium dioxide, 39 with UVAs, 3739 molecular structure, 37 with UVAs, 3739 Health, safety, and the environment, 6, 31, 4449, 5556, 169, 177, 181, 184, 189 Heat stabilizers, 142 long-term heat aging effects of, 21f Heat-based sterilization, 164 Hemp plant, 86 High-density PE (HDPE), 9 Highly filled masterbatch production, 143144 High-throughput extrusion, 143 Hindered amine light stabilizers (HALS). See HALS Hindered phenol AOs, 22 Hydrogen bromide (HBr), flamesuppressing, 4647 Hydrophilicity, 169 Hydrotalcite antacids. See Acid scavengers and neutralizers Hydroxylamines, 23 I Impact modifiers, 13, 54, 7982, 9193 EPDM rubber, 81 ethylene propylene rubber (EPR), 81, 9293 for film and sheet, 8182 plastomers, metallocene (polyolefin elastomers, POEs), 8081, 9293 styrenic copolymer, 92 for thick products, 8081 for TPO, 93f. See also Thermoplastic olefin (TPO) TPVs (thermoplastic vulcanizates), 81 Injection molding, 111 Injection stretch blow molding, 134 In-line compounding. See Direct extrusion and compounding Inorganic fillers, 910 boron nitride, 76 calcium carbonate, 7273 dense fillers, 76 glass flour, 75 glass spheres, 75 magnetite, 76 metal flake pigments, 76 mica, 74 silica, 75 synthetic mineral filler, 76 talc, 7374, 73t wollastonite, 74 Insect and rodent repelling agents, 170 J Jute plant, 86 K Kenaf plant, 86 Kevlar, 87 L Lactones, 23 Lambert-Beer equation. See Ultraviolet (UV) light stabilization Life cycle assessment, 13 Light stabilizing factors automotive coatings, 41, 41b building and construction, 42 fibers, 40 films, 4243 food contact use, 40 migration and extraction, 40 part thickness, 40 pipes, 41 tapes and yarns, 41 tested UV weatherability, 40 wood-plastic composites, 42 Long glass fibers, 8385, 96b Low-density PE (LLDPE), 9 blown film stability, 143 film, 97b Lubricants. See under Processing aids M Magnesium (di-)hydroxide, 49 Magnetite, 76 Market trends, of polyolefins growth versus volatility, 89 resin growth and prices, 9 218 INDEXMasterbatches, 10, 180181 Melt flow modification, processing aids for controlled rheology PP, 132 excerex metallocene olefin oligomer, 131132 internal processing lubricants, 129 silicone-based materials, 131 Metal fibers, 87 Metal flake pigments, 76 Metal stearates, 142 Metallic colorants, 107109 Metallocene LLDPE (mLLDPE) film, 92b Mica, 74. See also Colorants Mineral-based FR additives ATH and MDH, 4950 mineral fillers, 50 Mold release additives, processing aids for amides, 132 evaluating the effectiveness of, 132133 external mold releases, 133 fatty acids, 132 hydrocarbon microcrystalline waxes, 132 postmolding benefits of lubricants, 133 Molding, processing aids for. See under Processing aids Montmorillonite (MMT), 7778 N nanoclays, 7778, 97b nanotubes, 7879, 95 POSS, 79 silica. See Silica synthetic mineral fillers, 76 talc. See Talc wollastonite. See Wollastonite Nanocomposites. See Fillers Nanofillers nanocellulose, 79 nanotubes, 7879 plate-like, 7778 POSS nanomaterials, 79 potential of, 77 Nanoscale additives. See Fillers Nepheline syenite, 138 “No dust blends” (NDBs), 2830, 178. See also Additives: physical forms of Nonmigrating slip agents, 136137 Nucleating agents (nucleators) and clarifiers, 7, 117 β-phase nucleators, 120 clarifying agents, 121122 mechanism, 121122 nonsorbitol, 121f, 122 sorbitol based, 121122 cost of, 124125 effects of, 118121 on clarity, 121125 on crystallization, 118125 on organoleptics (odor), 123, 125 on warpage/shrinkage, 118120, 124125 factors in selecting, 122125 evaluation of, 123b fillers as nucleators, 121 interactions with, 125. See also Additive interactions mechanism of, 119f melt sensitive vs. melt insensitive, 117 phosphate esters, 118 sodium benzoate, 118 trisamide, 120, 122 Nucleating fillers, 121 O Odor and scent modifying agents, 11, 170 Odor-modifying additives, 170 Organic and inorganic colorants, 106t Organic peroxide agents, 160 Organosilane coupling agents, 154 Oxygen transmission additives as oxygen barriers for, 171172 oxygen-scavenging additives, 172173, 173b P Packaging, 34, 1113, 91b, 168 “active,” 12 enhanced barrier properties, 1112 food, 12, 40, 42b, 149, 164, 171173 improved aesthetics, 11 medical, 12, 163 polyolefins, 3 recyclability, 13 retortable, 12, 164165 safer food-contact materials, 12 thinner, 11 Paramethylbenzylidene sorbitol (DMDBS), 122 Pearlescent, 109 Peroxide decomposers, 36 Phenol-free stabilizers, 2223 Phenyl/aryl esters, as UV absorbers, 36 Phosphite-based AOs, 23 Phosphorescent effect, 110 Phosphorous-based FR additives issues in improving, 51 mechanisms of, 51 Pigments. See Colorants Plant-based additives. See Fiber reinforcement Plant-based fibers, 8587 Polyglycerol ester (PGE), 61 Polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS), 79 Polyolefins (polyethylene and polypropylene). See also Thermoplastic olefin (TPO) additives amount in products, 56 faster processing, 7 importance of, 4 matching property requirements, 5 new properties for new markets, 6 unintended interactions, 6 applications for, 1014 agricultural films, 1415, 39, 4243, 187 automotive, 5, 1314, 41, 94, 149151, 157b blow molding, 111, 123124, 141142, 149 blown film, 111, 142143 construction and infrastructure, 14, 42, 151. See also Wood-plastic composites (WPCs) fibers, tapes, and yarns, 11, 27, 3941, 55, 9394, 143 film and sheet (extrusion), 11, 40, 111, 124 injection molding, 41, 111, 123124, 131132, 149 medical (non-packaging), 31, 163 packaging. See Packaging: polyolefin pipe and profile extrusion, 11, 14, 28, 41, 90, 141142, 159 rotational molding, 111112, 152 thermoforming, 11, 111 wire and cable, 14, 159160 biodegradability, 186189 feedstocks for, 9 growth of (production/consumption), 34, 89 prices of, 89, 147 production of, 34 recycling of. See Recycling rigid containers, 184 structures of, 3 sustainability of, 183184 total volume and growth of, 3 Polypropylene (PP) raffia tapes, 92b Polyvinyl alcohol, 88 Processing aids, 7, 15t, 39, 127, 135 antiblocks. See Antiblocking additives applications for extrusion processes, 135 for filled compounds, 49, 131, 133134, 143144 for film and sheet, 135 for injection molding, 131 for injection stretch blow molding, 134 for masterbatch production, 143144 for rotational molding, 134 for wood-plastic composites, 144 INDEX 219Processing aids (Continued) die buildup reduction, 142 fluoropolymer based aids, 141142 interactions with. See Additive interactions lubricants, internal, 129, 144b amides, 129 glycerol monostearate, 130, 132 polymeric, 130t silicone based, 131, 133 melt fracture reduction, 142b mold release, 132133 evaluation of, 132133 external, 133 nucleators as processing aids, 134. See also Nucleating agents (nucleators) and clarifiers peroxide agents, 132, 143, 144b rheology controlled polypropylene, 132 slip agents. See Slip agents stearates. See Stearates, metal waxes, 132, 143144 Production and pricing trends. See Market trends, of polyolefins Pyrophyllite, 138 Q Quenchers, UV light, 36 in agricultural films, 43b R Radiation resistance in sterilization treatments. See Sterilization treatment resistance Recycling, 13, 56, 98, 156158, 186 Red and brown pigmentation, 105 Resin blending and feeding, 179180 compounding, 10 factors for selecting blending and handling equipment investment, 181 compounding vs. masterbatch/ concentrates, 180 consistency and credibility operation, 182 health and safety regulations and concerns, 181 mixing and dispersion issues, 181182 process flexibility and control, 180 transportation and logistics, 180181 volumes and inventory, 181 handling additives health and safety issues, 178 practical issues, 177178 mixing and dispersing lean compounding, 179 screw-processing developments, 178179 Retort sterilization, 164 Rotational molding, 111112, 134 Rubber modifiers. See Impact modifiers S Safety issues. See Health, safety, and the environment Scratch resistance additives effect of talc, 166 scratch tests, 167 silicone lubricants, 166167 slip agents, 167168. See also Slip agents Screws. See Tooling and equipment, process Self-reinforced PP, 88 Short glass fibers, 8283 Silane agents, 160161 higher temperature peroxides, for XLPE, case, 161b silane/moisture-cured XLPE, 161 traditional silane-XLPE processes, 161 XLPE-type method, 161 Silica, 75, 77, 137 diatomaceous earth (DE), 75. See also Antiblocking additives Sisal plant, 86 Slip agents as antiscratch additives, 167 as film processing aids, 135137 migrating, 135136 nonmigrating, 136137 interactions with other additives, 136. See also Additive interactions Stainless steel fibers, 65 Stearates, metal as acid scavengers, 2930. See also Acid scavengers and neutralizers as processing lubricants, 129, 143144. See also Processing aids: lubricants, internal Stearyl erucamide, 136 Stearyl stearamide, 136 Sterilization treatment resistance, 12, 163 additive formulations for, 164165 ethylene oxide treatment, effects, 164 heat sterilization, effects, 164 irradiation sterilization, effects, 163164 and polyolefins, 163164 retortable packaging, 165b role of stabilizers, 164, 165b Sustainability, choosing additives for, 183 atom economy, 184 degradation design, 184 polyolefins, 183184 biodegradability, 186189 green uses, 185186 learning for, 189 polymers, 183184 rigid containers, 184 renewable feedstocks use, 184 syntheses and designing safer chemicals, 184 Synthetic mineral filler, 76 Synthetic silica, 137138 T Talc, 10, 40, 50, 7374, 7778, 8991, 91b, 131, 171 as antiblock, 137141 combined with other fillers, 50, 74 as nucleating agent, 121 Thermoforming of extruded sheet, 111 Thermoplastic olefin (TPO), 3, 56, 11, 1314, 41, 41b, 7374, 7982, 89, 9293, 124, 131, 151, 157b, 166 Thermoplastic vulcanizate (TPV), 81 Thin PP fibers, 143 Thioester-based AOs, 24 Thiosynergists (thioesters). See Antioxidants (AOs) and heat stabilization: secondary AOs Titanium dioxide (TiO2), 910, 34 interactions with antioxidants, 30. See also Additive interactions interactions with nanofillers, 97b. See also Additive interactions as a pigment, 104, 114115 in UV stabilization, 3436, 39 TNPP (tris nonylphenyl phosphite). See Antioxidants (AOs) and heat stabilization: secondary AOs Tooling and equipment, process blending and feeding of additives, 179180 extruders, compounding, 178179, 181b screw design, 178179 Triazines, as UV absorbers, 36 Tris(nonylphenyl) phosphite (TNPP), 2324 Turf stabilization, artificial, 38b U Ultraviolet (UV) light stabilization, 6, 10, 14, 28b, 32 chromophores, 3234, 36 degradation cycle, 3234 factors determining selection of stabilizer, 4043 HALS (hindered amine light stabilizers), 27, 3643, 164. See also Antioxidants (AOs) and heat stabilization interactions with other additives, 3740, 48, 54, 115. See also Additive interactions 220 INDEXmechanism of, 37 NOR based, 37 Lambert-Beer equation, 36 UV absorbers (UVAs), 34, 35t, 3639 benzoates, 36, 39 benzophenones, 36 benzotriazoles, 36 triazines, 36 UV blockers and screeners, 3436 carbon black, 34, 41. See also Carbon black (CB) inorganic oxides, 34 UV quenchers, 36, 43 V Vitamin E. See Antioxidants (AOs) and heat stabilization W Wacker Chemie’s Monosil process, 161 Water vapor transmission, additives as barrier for, 171 Weatherability, testing of, 38b, 41 Weathering test methods, for woven PP tapes, 38b Wettability, 169 White colorants, 104 Wollastonite, 74 combined with glass fiber, 89 Wood-plastic composites (WPCs), 14, 42, 8586, 144, 151, 153, 181 direct extrusion (in-line compounding) of. See Direct extrusion and compounding Woven PP tapes, weathering test methods for, 38b Y Yellow and orange pigmentation, 105 INDEX 221
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