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أخواني في الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Additives for Polyolefins - Getting the Most out of Polypropylene, Polyethylene and TPO Michael Tolinski
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Table of Contents Preface to the Second Edition Section I: Overview of Polyolefins and Additives 1. Introduction 1.1 Importance of Polyolefins 1.2 Importance of Polyolefin Additives 1.3 Recent Issues in Using Additives 2. Trends in Polyolefin and Additives Use 2.1 Polyolefin Market Trends 2.2 Overall Trends in Additives Production and Use 2.3 Trends in Resin Compounding 2.4 Trends in Specific Polyolefin Applications Section II: Environmental Resistance 3. Antioxidants and Heat Stabilization 3.1 Importance of AOs and Stabilizers for Polyolefins 3.2 Primary and Secondary AOs 3.3 Factors Determining AO Selection 4. Ultraviolet Light Protection and Stabilization 4.1 UV Degradation of Polyolefins 4.2 UV Blockers, Screeners, and Absorbers 4.3 Quenchers and Peroxide Decomposers 4.4 HALS: Free-Radical Scavengers 4.5 Factors Determining Stabilizer Selection 5. Flame-Retarding Additives 5.1 Overview: The Need for FR Formulations 5.2 Halogen-Based FRs 5.3 Mineral-Based FRs 5.4 Intumescent and Phosphorous-Based FRs 5.5 Factors Determining the Selection of FR Additives 6. Additives for Modifying Electrical Properties 6.1 Antistatic and ESD Additives 6.2 EMI Shielding 6.3 Choosing Antistat/ESD/EMI Additives Section III: Mechanical Property Enhancement 7. Overview of Fillers and Fibers 7.1 Importance of Fillers and Fibers for Polyolefins 7.2 Common Inorganic Fillers 7.3 Nanofillers 7.4 Impact Modifiers and TPOs 7.5 Fiber Reinforcement 8. Factors Determining the Selection of Fillers and Fibers 8.1 Cutting Costs and Improving Properties with Fillers 8.2 Impact Modification: Balancing Stiffness with Toughness 8.3 Mechanical Reinforcement: Properties Create Opportunities 8.4 Processing Pitfalls and Hidden Costs 8.5 Questions When Choosing Fillers and Fibers Section IV: Appearance Enhancement 9. Colorants 9.1 Coloring Strategies 9.2 Colorant Delivery and Processing 9.3 Factors That Affect the Choice of Colorant 10. Nucleation and Clarity 10.1 Nucleating Agents: Overview 10.2 Factors in Choosing Nucleating/Clarifying Agents Section V: Processing Aids 11. Processing Aids for Molding 11.1 Melt Flow Modification and Mold Release 11.2 Special Cases for Processing Aids in Molding 12. Processing Aids for Extrusion 12.1 Requirements of Extrusion-Based Processes 12.2 Slip Agents 12.3 Antiblocking Agents 12.4 Additives for Reducing Melt Fracture and Die Buildup 12.5 Processing Aids for Specific Extrusion Situations Section VI: Other Modifications of Form and Function 13. Reducing Density: Polyolefin Foams 13.1 Blowing Foams: Chemical Agents Versus Physical Agents 13.2 Product Sectors Requiring CFAs 13.3 Factors in Blowing Better Foams 14. Coupling and Compatibilizing 14.1 Coupling Fillers and Fibers with the Polyolefin Matrix 14.2 Compatibilizers for Integrating Regrind and Recycled Materials 15. Cross-Linking 15.1 Cross-Linked PE: Advantages and Applications 15.2 Cross-Linking Agents 15.3 Factors in Choosing Cross-Linking Agents 16. Sterilization and Radiation Resistance 16.1 Sterilization Effects on Polyolefin Products 16.2 Additive Solutions for Sterilization-Resistant Polyolefins 17. Aesthetics Enhancement and Surface Modification 17.1 Antiscratch Additives 17.2 Antifogging Agents 17.3 Antimicrobials and Biocides 17.4 Odor-Modifying Additives 18. Gas Barrier Properties Enhancement 18.1 Polyolefin Additives as Barriers to Water Vapor Transmission 18.2 Oxygen Transmission and the Scavenging Effects of Additives 18.3 Additives for Controlling Other Gases Section VII: Conclusion: Incorporating Additives 19. Adding Additives to Resin 19.1 Handling Additives 19.2 Mixing and Dispersing Additives into Resin 19.3 Blending and Feeding Additives 19.4 Choosing the Best Form of an Additive 20. Choosing Additives for Sustainability 20.1 Factors That Make Polyolefins Sustainable 20.2 Characteristics of Sustainable Polyolefin Additives 20.3 Examples of “Green” Uses of Additives in Polyolefin Materials 20.4 Additives for Promoting Polyolefin Biodegradability: Questions and Concerns 20.5 Lessons to Learn for Choosing Sustainable Additives for Polyolefins References Index PREFACE . xiii. Sectio.n I: Overview of Polyoleftns and Additives CHAPTER 1 Introduction . 3 1.J Importance,or .POs . 3 1.2 ImpoltElllce ,I;)[1'0 additives , ", .4 1.3 Rocant lssuQS In uslng ad.ditl'i'es ." 5 1.3.'1 Matching property requirements with acldjtive tvpc and amount .6 I . 2. DQinll mQre with le!>5 mateIial ", . (;> 1.3.3 New properties for new mlllket.s ." 7 1.3.4, Unintended add i.tive inte actions 7 1.3.6 Faster procQssmg . B CHAPTER 2 Trends in Polyolefin and Additiv US!!l 9 2.1 PO market trend5 " .n 9 2.1.1 Growth \IS. volatility 10 ;!.1.2 Futllre reain [JrQwttJ aue! price- " 10 2.2 OVfirall trends in additi.'lils production and use. 11 2.3 Trends in re [11 QOllllJQunding " J2 2.4 Tr nds in s]:)ec:\llc PO applleations . 13 2.4.1 P2.4.2 AIltQmotiv9 trends tor POs ." .16 2.4.3 ConattucttQI1 end nrraatTUctu re appLicatio)1 ronds " . 18 vTab)e of Cooteots Section n: Environmental Resistance CHAPTER 3 Antioxidants and Heat Stabilization 25 3.1 Impartan08 of AO" and "l.abiliz"IE rOt POs 26 3.2 Prunary and secondary AOs . 29 3.2.1 Primary AOs (radical scavengers) __ __ . 29 3.2.2 Socondary AOs (p()roKide d oomposllrs) 31 3.3 FaCI.OIB determining AO selection __ 33 3.3.1 TIlerrnaland color requjrements in melt J)roce.ss'ng and In "eNlc.L . 36 3.3.2 AO selection by PO type and finlshed p roduct form . 37 3.3.3 AO physical forms and handling . 38 3.3.4 S)'tlergies and antagonLatic interactions .38 3. 3.5 Cost 40 3.3.1) EIIV'irolimen cal, !ood·oontac1, and heaml and safet:y QO/JIjide[EltioTIs " 4 1 CHAPTER 4 Ultraviolet Light PIOtectiOIl and Stabili<:atiQIl . 45 4.1 UV degradation ot POs . " .__ __ 47 4.::;l UV b lockera, !jiCreeners, and ab80rbers __ "'" ., __ 48 4.2.1 UV·blockinq and ·absorbing- fillers and pigments 48 4.2.2 O anic UV ab:oorben> . 50 4.3 Quellcbors and IJ(}roKide·deoomposers .__ __ .__ . 51 4.4 HALS: Free-radical scavengers __ .__ __ .__ . 51 4.4.1 Ovm:vlcw ot HALS 51 Vl.2 IllteracttonE or HALS and other additive!! __ __ .53 4.5 Factors determining stabilizer setection .55 4. 6.1 Clenef l fal;ltors __ 56 4.5.2 Light stabiliZers for sp cifie PO applications . 56 CHAPTER 5 Flame-Retarding Additives .m __ . 61 5.1 Overview: 'The need tor name·r tardant (oDllulations 61 5. t .1 Trends in liIame'retalding additives 61 5.1.2 Mechanisms 01humlng .__ .__ .__ .__ .__ . 62 5.2 Halogen-based flame retartiIIDPl 63 5.2.1 Composition 01 ll·PIls .__ .__ .__ .__ __ .__ 6 S.2.:iI CQnC"m abOllt h5.3 MlnGral·baSBd tlame riwrrdants __ . 68 5.3.1 ATH and MDH . 6S 5.3.2 OthElf mineraI nllars' F'Rett9Cls . __ 69'fable of Contents 5.4 Intumcscont and pbosphorolls·bas!)d !lam!) rct8IdllIl.l:S .70 5.4 1 Mechanisms of phosphorous FRs ., 70 5.4.2 Issues in imlJ[Q11ing- phosphoroll!J FRs 71 5.5 Factors daLermlnlng lila seLection or FR ad.d1tlvBs 72 5. 5.1 COS" risk, and verfClrmance .74 5. 5.2 Property effects BnDoo-addjtive n! era'Cttons .75 5.5.3 FR density and tOIm . ' 76 5.5.4 HBlog8"n·r.llla benefits (and cOsts) 77 CHAPTER 6 Ad ditilffls for Mollifying Kl ctJ:ical Properties . 79 6.1 Antwtatic and ESD addiuvcs " '".'" 79 6.l .1 Mig!rating chemica! anLista,is .' . , . 81 6.1 2 Nonmigrating- polymers as permanellt ELnt istatLClESD addttives , ._ __ 85 6.1.3 CClnductive fillers as,anlistatidESD additives 86 6.2 EMI slLleldlng . 88 6.2. 1 Conductive fillers for EM! sruolding 68 6.2.2 Conductive,ftbers for EM'! shJeJdiIlQ . 89 6.3 Choosin(J antistatlESDIEMl additives .89 6.3.1 Amlstat electIon factors .89 6.3.2 Desi!pl oOTIsicleratioll5 (or EMlshielding 90 SenUo,1Ii m: Mechanical Property Enhancemen CHAPTER 7 Overview of Fllffirs and Fibers , 95 '7.] bnpottance 01 Illl.ars and Ilh,,-rs for POs . , . 96 7.2 Common inorganIc fillers 96 7.:2.1 Calalum carbonate _ . 97 7.2.2 Talc ., , 9a 7.2.3 Wollasl.Onite _ 99 7.2.4 Mica 100 7.2.5 Slllea ., 101 7.2.6 Glass flour !Illd sphe[e'S . lQ1 7.2.7 Other micrQruJ9l'S 102 7.3 Nafi1;lflJlers ., . 103 7.3.1 Potomtlai ofnanoIlli9IS 103 7.3.2 Platy mmoc!ays . 104, 7.3.3 N'anotuhes _ . 'lOS 7.3-4 POSS' mmi)m7.4 Impact modiftClIS and TPOs " . . 107 7 4.1 Impact madifl,oation rO [ thick products .108 7.4.2 ImpactrnodJficatioll fo[ film audshe.et 109Table of Contents 7,5 Flbor roinforCOill(ffit." , ." , " ,. u , . " , " , " , , , 1! 0 7.5.t Stmrt glass !lberB . 111 ?.5,2 LOJlg glass Jlli.ers " , ", ,,, " , , it2 7.5.3 FlallL-ilElsed Ilbe.rs . 115 7.5,4 Other kinds of fl])er reinforcement." , " ,. , 116 CHAP"I'ER 8 Factors Detsnnining the Selection of Fi1'lers and Fibers , . , ."., .,, , , ,.,"', ,"''', , ,'' '' 121 B.l CUILihg caslaal1d ImpiOVing properties w ith tillers ." , ., " , " , " ,.,', ,' "' " ' " 122 8-2 Impact mOtilncaUOJt: Ba]andn,(l atlUnes;; with toughness , " , , " . , , , .124 ,s.3 MechBhi,cal reiniarCE!J'l1ent : Propettie8 create opportunities , " ., "." , , " . 126 B.B.G Questions when choosing Jillers ami fibers " . " . 132 Section IV! Appearance Enhancement CHAPTER 9 Colorants .,, . 139 9.1 OOlotlng stxalBgills 139 '9.1,t Whlto colorants , , ." . . 140 9.1.2 BlqcK oolarantB '", , . 14t 9.1,3 Full·spectrum oolorants . 141 9.1.4 Meta.1lic colorants . 145 9.1:5 Pearlescent coloran amI ooIor enhancmg addh lves 14" (1,2 Colorant delivery lind. moceS:llllg " 146 9.2.1 Ga!cmml delivE!ry , . 148 '9.2.2 Processing issues with oolorants ." 150 9.3 Fa.cton; Uiat alle(;1 !:he ch.oloe of oo\{}rant, __ . 151 9,.3.1 General factors 151 9.3.2 Add.H:lvelcolorant lntlaract.ions . 155 ij.3.3 E ternB l tiDg8 Vii, iI1temlll col.or8J]tB 156 CHAP'l'ER 10 NuclEtation and Clarity ____ 157 10.1 Nuclea.tillg a.gents: Overview , , 157 10.].1 :Nuclootlng a(lent effects em prOCBJlii11'1 and prqperties, . , , . , . 156 10.1.2 CJarlfying nUc!Ba!ing ageDls , .16210.2 Factors In chooslng nud03tlnglclarifylng agents" 164 10.2.1 ApplicatIons Bn d resins 1&1 10,2.2 Practiclll US!} iactors , , ,. 166 Section V: PtOGessing Aids CHAPTER 11 Pr s:inq Aidl! fOT Molding 171 11,1 Meltcfl\)w IOOdifIcot[Qll and mold release, , , , 171 11.1.1 Melt.f.low·enhanciJ.'lg lU.l:nicams anll modJ:llc-rs . , , , , ., . , , , , , 172 11.1.2 Mold- Blease addil yes .175 11,2 Special cases lor vrQCessing aids in molding , ,,, 177 11.2.1 AJds ror mo!dlng hlghlv Illl.e/l oompounds 171 11.2.2 Aids for ISBM .17a 11.2.3 AIds tor rota anal mClldlng _ .179 CHAPTER 12 Processing Aids for Extrusion 18i 12,1 Requirements ofextrusioll-based prQOesses , , 1Bl 12.2 SlIp agents ._ .182 1"2 ,3 AIl blocKin!;l agenlS , , , . , .184 12,3.1 Inorganic antlblocks , , ._., , ., _ 184 12,3.2 Organic'antibl()ci!s " 186 12.:3.3 ClarlL'lISliP anliblooks ._ . 188 12 ,q, .Abulldup .,, , . , . _." . , , " 1B9 12.'U PllloJopolymer pmaeBB llg aids ., , , . 19C1 12,4.2. Reducing die and scrcen·pa.ek fQuI1ng .,, . ' w . 191 12,5 Processing aids for sped.flc extrusion siruations " 191 12.5.1 Hlgh·tlrroughput extruslOD . , .191 12.5.2 LLDPE blown·f!lm stability . 19l 12,5.3 Oliantcd PP slit tapa Ilblillation "._., ." . ,.192 12.5.4 Thin PP fibers . , .193 12,5.5 Hlgllly filled mast rbllt{;h production , , 193 12,6.6 Wood;>lru;tic "QIIlp;I i'eSecUon VI: Otber ModUicatio:ns of F-orm and FUnction CHAPTER 13 Re dUCing Density: Polyolefin .Foams ."." _. " 197 13.1 Blowing (Dams: Ii:xteTIlBI agQJlts ,., ,.u., ' d' I_ I .__., ._ ., ,,._n ."., .,,.d, . ,.19" 13.1.1 Physical blowing .agents . 198 13,1.2 Chemi.C'lIJ blowing agents 19(1 'fable of Content s'Fable of Contents 13.2 Product soctms roqulrlng chclWeal bloWing a\Jen1.8 200 13,2.1 Molded packaging and oonsumer products." ,. 200 13.2.2 Automotive lnOlclings _ _ . 2111 13,2.3 EKtruded construction products . , ." , 202 13.2." Foamlng in .otatlon.al melding . ,_ 202 13.3. Factors in blowing better foams , ",. " , ", 203· CHAPTER 14 Coupling, Compatibilizing, Recycling, and Biodegradallility,." , ,'" . , " ,. ,., .' 205 14.1 Coupling Mllrs ancUlb1ll'S with thQ PO mam . 20!; 14.,1.1 Tra14,1.2 Alternative ooup]jng aQ!onts .,",. . 20'7 14.2 ColIl):>illlbili;oots for inlegla.ling regrInd a):Imaterials, , ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,' , ,, ,' , ,, ,m., , " , , , ,, 209 14.3 Addjti1/es tbat promote PO biodegradability 2 12 CRAP'TER 15 Crosslinl!ing . , 215 10.1 Crosslinked PR: advantages and applications" .,, .,, 2l 5 15.2 Gf15.2.1 Pe.roxlde·JJased agents ., ., , ,. 2t7 l 5.2.2 Sila!1e·base<:l agents , .21S 15,2.3 Radiauon·inducederosslinking ". " 219 15.3 Fac lors ih cho[)Sing crosalinklng agents .2 t 9 CHAPTER 16 Stertli2a.ti-on and RadIation Resistance "'''" . 221 HLt S:tQIjJjzallon effects on PO products ." 221 16.1.1 Effects of wadia tiOtl sterilization :n 16.1.2 Effocts of EtO sl eril128tion .,, ,, , ." ., ., 223 1Il.1.3 Effects of ltigh·remperatme stenllZatlon 223 16.2 Additive solutiolls for sterilization-resistant POs " ,. ,',. 223. CRAFTBR 17 AesthetiCS Enhancement anet Surface Modillcation ., . 225 17.1 Anti-!lCIatcb additives ,' .,,. ,, . ' , , . ' ., ," . , 226 17.1.1 Conventional ani:i-)!;CtB.lcil approaehes 225 t 7.1.2 Evaluating- anti-scratch adcbtlvGs, ." 227 17,1.J Alt17.2 Antitogging agents .,, ., ., ,'" , . , ." . 229 17.3 AT\timictoblaJs ahd bioCidea , 229 17.4 Odor-fl)odifying additives" ., , ." .,',. , 231Table ·of Contents Section VB:Conclusion: Incorporating Additives CHAPTER 18 Adding Additives to Resin 235 18.1 HalldUng a,d!:litiyeB , ., ., .2:35 18,1.'1 Practical handling: issues ." , 236 18. 1.2 l:Iealtll and sa[ety issues . 236 18 ,2 Mlxmg and dispersmg additives into resin ." 237 11l.2.1 Screw-proceBsing developments , , ., . 2·37 18,2.2 ".Lean" compounding, ., , .,. ,., ., 238 18.3 lliending and reeding' additives . 238 18,4, Choosing the best form of an additive , , , , 239 REJ'ERENCES . , , , ," , .,' " . 2(13 INDEX . '-' " ."'" . u . I I n "'-' 'nn . n -. " n , ' .,.,- . 275 275 A Acid scavengers and neutralizers, 30, 38, 167, 191 hydrotalcite antacids, 30, 40, 167 Additive interactions, 7, 38–40, 53–5, 75–6, 90, 132, 134–5, 167 Additives for plastics: growth of, 11–12 handling of, 235–6 health and safety issues see Health, safety, and the environment mixing and feeding of see Tooling and equipment, process physical forms of, 235–6, 239–42 prices of, 12 Antiblocking additives, 99 blocking force, measuring, 184 clarity/slip antiblocks, 188 organic antiblocks, 186 silica, 185 diatomaceous earth, 185 (see also Silica) talc, 99, 185 (see also Talc) Antifogging agents, 228–9 evaluating effectiveness of, 229 Antimicrobial agents, 229–31 growth and use of, 230 Antioxidants (AOs), 25–43 factors determining selection of, 33–43 primary (radical scavengers), 29–31 hindered phenols, 29–31 hydroxylamines, 31 lactones (benzofuranones), 31 phenol-free AOs, 30–31 vitamin E (-tocopherol), 30, 43 secondary (hydroxide decomposers), 29, 31–2 phosphite-based, 31–2 thioester-based (thiosynergists), 32 tris nonylphenyl phosphite (TNPP), 32 Antistatic additives, 79–90 external agents, 81 factors for selecting, 89–91 food-use restrictions for, 90 migrating, 81–6, 89–90 amides (lauric diethanolamide; LDA), 83–4 amines, ethoxylated (EA), 83–4, 90 glycerol esters, 83–4 glycerol monostearate (GMS), 83–4 polyglycerol esters (PGE), 83–4, 90 nonmigrating (permanent), 85–8 conductive fillers, 86–8 inherently conductive polymers (ICPs), 86 inherently dissipating polymers (IDPs), 85–6 Autoxidation, 26–32 B Barium sulfate (barytes, blanc fixe), 103, 140 Biocides see Antimicrobial agents Biodegradability additives, 212–13 C Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), 12, 69–70, 97–9 coatings on, 97 combined with other fillers, 69–70, 99 as nucleating agent, 161–2 Carbon black, 28, 39, 48, 58, 86–7 Chain scission, 26–7 Clarifiers see Nucleating agents and clarifiers Colorants, 139–156 black pigments, 141 carbon black, 141 (see also Carbon black) delivery and form of, 148–9 dyes, 142, 144–5 factors in selecting, 151–6 external vs. internal colorants, 156 gloss, 153–4 metamerism, 152 interactions, 155 pigment attributes, 152–3 regulatory issues, 154–5 weatherability, 153–4 inorganic pigments, 142, 145 metallic colorants, 145–7 organic pigments, 142–5 pearlescent colorants, 147 mica flakes, 147 (see also Mica) processing of, 150–1 special-effects colorants, 147–8 testing of color, 151–2 white pigments, 140–1 barium sulfate, 140 Index276 Index Colorants (continued) (see also Barium sulfate) titanium dioxide, 140–1 (see also Titanium dioxide) zinc sulfide, 140–1 Compatibilizers, 209–12 copolymers as, 211 coupling agents as, 211–12 see also Coupling agents Compounding, 5–7, 33, 69, 96, 108–10, 115, 125–31, 133, 150, 193 “Lean” compounding, 238 trends, 12–13 see also Direct extrusion and compounding Coupling agents, 132, 205–9 acrylic acid, 111 for glass fibers, 111, 207 maleic anhydride-grafted copolymer agents, 97, 111, 116–17, 206–8, 211 for nanocomposites, 208–9 for plant-based fibers, 116–17, 208 silane-based agents, 69, 98, 100, 111, 206–7 titanates and zirconates, 69, 88–9, 111, 178, 203, 207–9, 211–12 Crosslinking, 26–7, 39, 215–20 factors in processing, 219–20 mechanism for, 217 peroxide-based, 217–18 properties of XLPE, 216 radiation-induced, 219 silane-based, 218–19 D Design of experiments (DoE), 6, 132, 189 Diatomaceous earth (see Silica) Direct extrusion and compounding: of long glass fibers, 115, 131 of wood fiber and flour, 117 E Electromagnetic interference (EMI), 79–81, 88–91 additives for, 88–9 carbon black, 88 conductive fibers, 89 coupling agents, 88–9 metal fillers, 88 factors for selecting, 89–91 Electrostatic discharge (ESD), 79–91 additives for see Antistatic additives Environmental issues (see Health, safety, and the environment) see also Recycling issues F Fiber reinforcement: carbon, 89, 118–19 coupling agents for, 111, 116–17, 207 factors for selecting, 126–134 glass fiber, 12, 17, 110–15 direct extrusion (inline compounding) of see Direct extrusion glass-mat thermoplastic (GMT), 114 long fiber, 112–15 molding of, 111, 114–15 orientation of fibers, 111–12, 114 short fiber, 111–12 plant-based, 6, 115–18 see also Wood-plastic composites polymer-based, 118–19 stainless steel, 89, 118 Fillers: barium sulfate (see Barium sulfate) calcium carbonate (see Calcium carbonate) carbon black (see Carbon black) conductive, 86–8 see also Antistatic additives factors for selecting, 121–134 flame-retarding, 12, 68–70, 75–6 glass flour and spheres (see Glass) metal oxides, 103 see also Titanium dioxide metallic, 102 see also Colorants mica see Mica nanofillers, 12, 15, 55, 76–7, 103–7, 127–8 graphenes, 87 health and safety questions, 104, 130, 237 nanoclays, 103–5 handling and forms of, 105 use with titanium dioxide, 133 effects on foaming, 204 exfoliation and dispersion of, 104–5, 127 stabilization for, 133 nanotubes, 87, 105–6 POSS, 106–7 silica see Silica talc see Talc wollastonite see Wollastonite Flame retardants, 61–78 antimony oxide, 66, 77 ATH (aluminum trihydrate), 12, 68–70, 75–6 chlorinated paraffin, 66 concerns about, 62, 66–8 deca-BDE (decabromodiphenyl ether), 65–7 EDAP (ethyl diamine phosphate), 71 factors determining selection of, 72–8 halogen alternatives, 66–8, 71–4, 77–8 halogen-based, 63–8 interactions with, 54, 75–6 intumescent, 70–2 markets and growth of, 62 MDH (magnesium (di-) hydroxide), 68–70, 75–6 mechanisms of, 62–4, 68, 70 mineral-based, 68–70, 75–6 phosphorous-based, 70–2 smoke suppression, 74–5 testing for, 63 Foams and foaming agents, 197–204 azodicarbonamide (ADCA), 199, 203–4 blowing agents, 197–203 chemical (internal) blowing agents, 199–203 inorganic endothermic agents, 199–200 microcapsule foams, 200 organic exothermic agents, 199 physical blowing agents, 198–9 expanded polypropylene, 202 factors in foaming, 203–4Index 277 nanoclay effects, 204 sodium bicarbonate, 199–200 structural foam, 201 G Gas fading, 29, 37 Glass additives: fiber see Fiber reinforcement flour, 101 spheres, 101–2 H HALS (hindered amine light stabilizers), 30, 51–9 see also Ultraviolet light stabilization Health, safety, and the environment, 7–8, 236–7, 241 antimicrobial issues, 230 antioxidant issues, 41, 43 antistat issues, 90 colorant issues, 142, 154–6 flame retardant issues, 66–8, 72–4 nanofiller issues, 104, 130, 237 UV light stabilizer issues, 56, 60 Hydrotalcite antacids see Acid scavengers I Impact modifiers, 107–10, 124–6 EPDM rubber, 108–9 ethylene-propylene rubber (EPR), 108–9 for film and sheet, 109–10, 125 plastomers, metallocene (polyolefin elastomers), 108–9 styrenic copolymers, 110, 125 for TPO, 107–9, 125–6 TPVs (thermoplastic vulcanizates), 109 Inline compounding see Direct extrusion Insect and rodent repelling agents, 231 L Lambert-Beer equation see Ultraviolet light stabilization “Lightweighting”, 6, 197, 201–3 Long-term heat aging (LTHA), 27–8, 68 Lubricants, 69 M Masterbatches, use of, 5–6, 12–13, 129, 193, 236, 239–41 Mica, 100, 147 N Nanocomposites see Fillers Nano-scale additives see Fillers “No dust blends” (NDBs), 38, 60, 236 Nucleating agents and clarifiers, 157–68 -phase nucleators, 161 clarifying nucleating agents non-sorbitol, 162–4 sorbitol-based, 162 effects of, 158–64 on clarity, 162–4 on crystallization, 158, 161–2 on organoleptics, 162, 167 on physical properties, 158–62 factors in selecting, 164–8 evaluation of, 165 fillers as nucleators, 161–2 interactions with, 167–8 mechanism of, 157–8 melt sensitive vs. melt insensitive, 158 phosphate esters, 161–2 sodium benzoate, 158 trisamide, 161 O Odor-modifying agents, 231–2 P Plant-based additives, 6 see also Fiber reinforcement Polyolefins (polyethylene, polypropylene, TPO): applications for, 13–21 agricultural films, 19, 60 automotive, 16–18, 57–8, 107–10, 112, 126, 131, 201–2, 226 blow molding, 14, 151, 165, 178–9 blown film, 90, 151–2, 166–7, 181, 189–92 construction, 18–19, 116, 202 extrusion, general, 14, 165–6, 191–2 fibers and tapes, 14, 37, 56–7, 192–3 film and sheet, 13, 59–60, 133, 151, 166 injection molding, 13, 151, 160, 165, 174–8, 200 packaging, 14–16, 123, 200 pipe, 18, 58, 77, 123, 216, 219 rotational moldings, 13, 60, 151, 179, 202, 219 wire & cable, 18–19, 39, 216 feedstocks for, 6, 10–11 growth of, 4, 10–11, 108 prices of, 10–12 volumes used, 3–4 Processing aids, 171–194 antiblocks see Antiblocking agents die buildup, reducing, 191 for extrusion processes, 181–94 for filled compounds, 174, 177–8 for injection molding, 174, 175–8 for injection-stretch blow molding, 178–9 for masterbatch production, 193 for rotational molding, 179 for wood-plastic composites, 193–4 fluoropolymer-based aids, 190–1 interactions with, 54 lubricants, internal, 172–78 melt fracture, preventing, 189–91 mold release, 174, 175–7 nucleators, 179–80 see also Nucleating agents and clarifiers peroxide, 175 rheology, controlled, 175 silicone-based, 174–5, 178 slip agents see Slip agents R Radiation resistance in sterilization treatments see Sterilization resistance Recycling issues, 6–7, 16, 17, 110, 119, 134, 168, 209–12278 Index Resistivity, 80, 84 Rubber modifiers see Impact modifiers S Safety issues see Health, safety, and the environment Scratch resistance additives, 226–8 effect of talc, 226–8 scratch tests, 227 silicone lubricants, 226–7 slip agents, 226–8 see also Slip agents Screws see Tooling and equipment, process Silica, 101 diatomaceous earth, 101 see also Antiblocking agents Slip agents: as anti-scratch additives, 226–7 as film processing aids, 182–4 migrating, 182–4 nonmigrating, 184 Static decay time, 80, 84, 85 Stearates, metal (calcium and zinc), 167, 211, 236 as acid scavenger, 30, 38 as coating for calcium carbonate, 97–8 as processing lubricant, 173–4, 177–8, 191, 194 see also Acid scavengers see also Processing aids Sterilization treatment resistance, 221–4 additive formulations for, 223 effects on polyolefins, 221–3 retortable packaging, 223–4 role of stabilizers, 223–4 T Talc, 12, 69–70, 98–9, 100, 122–4 combined with other fillers, 69–70, 99 as nucleating agent, 161–2 “ultrafine”, 99, 123 Thiosynergists (thioesters) see Antioxidants, secondary Titanium dioxide (TiO2), 12, 134, 177, 193, 207 interactions with antioxidants, 40 interactions with nanofillers, 133 as a pigment, 140–1, 147, 153, 155 in UV stabilization, 48–50, 53–4 TNPP (tris nonylphenyl phosphite) see Antioxidants, secondary Tooling and equipment, process, 241–2 abrasive wear of, 100, 111, 129 blending and feeding, 238–9 extruders, compounding, 237–8 lubrication of surfaces, 190–1 screw: design, 237–8 torque reduction, 172–5, 191–2 U Ultraviolet (UV) light stabilization, 45–60 chromophores, 47–8 degradation cycle, 47–8 factors determining selection of stabilizer, 55–60 HALS (hindered amine light stabilizers), 51–60 interactions of, 53–5 mechanism of, 52 NOR-based, 52, 58 varieties of, 52–60 Lambert-Beer equation, 51 UV absorbers (UVAs), 48–51 benzoates, 51 benzophenones (UVA-1), 50 benzotriazoles (UVA-2 and -3), 51 triazines (UVA-4), 51 UV blockers and screeners, 48–50 carbon black, 48 inorganic oxides, 48, 50, 53–4 UV quenchers, 51, 60 Vitamin E see Antioxidants W Weatherability, testing of, 56 Wollastonite, 99–100 combined with glass fiber, 100 Wood-plastic composites, 18–19, 59, 115–17, 193–4, 202, 240 direct extrusion (inline compounding) of see Direct extrusion
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