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![كتاب Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering - An Integrated Approach - 3rd Edition Empty](https://2img.net/i/fa/empty.gif) | موضوع: كتاب Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering - An Integrated Approach - 3rd Edition السبت 13 يوليو 2024, 2:36 am | |
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أخواني في الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering - An Integrated Approach - 3rd Edition William D. Callister, Jr. Department of Metallurgical Engineering The University of Utah David G. Rethwisch Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering The University of Iowa
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Contents LIST OF SYMBOLS xxiii 1 Introduction 1 Learning Objectives 2 1.1 Historical Perspective 2 1.2 Materials Science and Engineering 3 1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering? 5 1.4 Classification of Materials 5 1.5 Advanced Materials 10 1.6 Modern Materials Needs 13 References 14 Questions 14 2 Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 15 Learning Objectives 16 2.1 Introduction 16 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 16 2.2 Fundamental Concepts 16 2.3 Electrons in Atoms 17 2.4 The Periodic Table 23 ATOMIC BONDING IN SOLIDS 24 2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 24 2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 27 2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding 31 2.8 Molecules 34 Summary 34 Important Terms and Concepts 35 References 35 Questions and Problems 35 3 Structures of Metals and Ceramics 37 Learning Objectives 38 3.1 Introduction 38 3.2 Fundamental Concepts 38 • xvxvi • Contents CRYSTAL STRUCTURES 38 3.3 Unit Cells 39 3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 40 3.5 Density Computations— Metals 44 3.6 Ceramic Crystal Structures 45 3.7 Density Computations— Ceramics 52 3.8 Silicate Ceramics 54 3.9 Carbon 58 3.10 Polymorphism and Allotropy 61 3.11 Crystal Systems 61 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC POINTS, DIRECTIONS, AND PLANES 64 3.12 Point Coordinates 64 3.13 Crystallographic Directions 66 3.14 Crystallographic Planes 70 3.15 Linear and Planar Densities 75 3.16 Close-Packed Crystal Structures 77 CRYSTALLINE AND NONCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS 80 3.17 Single Crystals 80 3.18 Polycrystalline Materials 80 3.19 Anisotropy 82 3.20 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures 83 3.21 Noncrystalline Solids 87 Summary 89 Important Terms and Concepts 91 References 92 Questions and Problems 92 4 Polymer Structures 97 Learning Objectives 98 4.1 Introduction 98 4.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules 98 4.3 Polymer Molecules 100 4.4 The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules 101 4.5 Molecular Weight 106 4.6 Molecular Shape 108 4.7 Molecular Structure 109 4.8 Molecular Configurations 111 4.9 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers 115 4.10 Copolymers 116 4.11 Polymer Crystallinity 117 4.12 Polymer Crystals 121 Summary 123 Important Terms and Concepts 124 References 124 Questions and Problems 125 5 Imperfections in Solids 127 Learning Objectives 128 5.1 Introduction 128 POINT DEFECTS 128 5.2 Point Defects in Metals 128 5.3 Point Defects in Ceramics 130 5.4 Impurities in Solids 133 5.5 Point Defects in Polymers 136 5.6 Specification of Composition 136 MISCELLANEOUS IMPERFECTIONS 140 5.7 Dislocations—Linear Defects 140 5.8 Interfacial Defects 144 5.9 Bulk or Volume Defects 147 5.10 Atomic Vibrations 147 MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 149 5.11 General 149 5.12 Microscopic Techniques 150 5.13 Grain Size Determination 155 Summary 156 Important Terms and Concepts 158 References 158 Questions and Problems 158 6 Diffusion 161 Learning Objectives 162 6.1 Introduction 162 6.2 Diffusion Mechanisms 163 6.3 Steady-State Diffusion 165 6.4 Nonsteady-State Diffusion 167 6.5 Factors That Influence Diffusion 171 6.6 Other Diffusion Paths 177 6.7 Diffusion in Ionic and Polymeric Materials 177 Summary 181 Important Terms and Concepts 182 References 182 Questions and Problems 182Contents • xvii 7 Mechanical Properties 186 Learning Objectives 187 7.1 Introduction 187 7.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 188 ELASTIC DEFORMATION 192 7.3 Stress–Strain Behavior 192 7.4 Anelasticity 196 7.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 196 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR—METALS 199 7.6 Tensile Properties 200 7.7 True Stress and Strain 207 7.8 Elastic Recovery After Plastic Deformation 210 7.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformation 211 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR— CERAMICS 211 7.10 Flexural Strength 211 7.11 Elastic Behavior 213 7.12 Influence of Porosity on the Mechanical Properties of Ceramics 213 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR— POLYMERS 214 7.13 Stress–Strain Behavior 215 7.14 Macroscopic Deformation 217 7.15 Viscoelastic Deformation 218 HARDNESS AND OTHER MECHANICAL PROPERTY CONSIDERATIONS 222 7.16 Hardness 222 7.17 Hardness of Ceramic Materials 228 7.18 Tear Strength and Hardness of Polymers 228 PROPERTY VARIABILITY AND DESIGN/SAFETY FACTORS 229 7.19 Variability of Material Properties 229 7.20 Design/Safety Factors 232 Summary 233 Important Terms and Concepts 235 References 235 Questions and Problems 236 8 Deformation and Strengthening Mechanisms 242 Learning Objectives 243 8.1 Introduction 243 DEFORMATION MECHANISMS FOR METALS 243 8.2 Historical 244 8.3 Basic Concepts of Dislocations 244 8.4 Characteristics of Dislocations 246 8.5 Slip Systems 248 8.6 Slip in Single Crystals 250 8.7 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals 253 8.8 Deformation by Twinning 255 MECHANISMS OF STRENGTHENING IN METALS 256 8.9 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction 257 8.10 Solid-Solution Strengthening 259 8.11 Strain Hardening 260 RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION, AND GRAIN GROWTH 263 8.12 Recovery 264 8.13 Recrystallization 264 8.14 Grain Growth 269 DEFORMATION MECHANISMS FOR CERAMIC MATERIALS 270 8.15 Crystalline Ceramics 271 8.16 Noncrystalline Ceramics 271 MECHANISMS OF DEFORMATION AND FOR STRENGTHENING OF POLYMERS 272 8.17 Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers 272 8.18 Factors That Influence the Mechanical Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers 274 8.19 Deformation of Elastomers 278 Summary 281 Important Terms and Concepts 283 References 283 Questions and Problems 284xviii • Contents 9 Failure 288 Learning Objectives 289 9.1 Introduction 289 FRACTURE 289 9.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 289 9.3 Ductile Fracture 290 9.4 Brittle Fracture 293 9.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 293 9.6 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics 304 9.7 Fracture of Polymers 308 9.8 Impact Fracture Testing 309 FATIGUE 314 9.9 Cyclic Stresses 315 9.10 The S–N Curve 317 9.11 Fatigue in Polymeric Materials 319 9.12 Crack Initiation and Propagation 320 9.13 Factors that Affect Fatigue Life 322 9.14 Environmental Effects 325 CREEP 326 9.15 Generalized Creep Behavior 326 9.16 Stress and Temperature Effects 328 9.17 Data Extrapolation Methods 329 9.18 Alloys for High-Temperature Use 331 9.19 Creep in Ceramic and Polymeric Materials 331 Summary 332 Important Terms and Concepts 334 References 334 Questions and Problems 335 10 Phase Diagrams 339 Learning Objectives 340 10.1 Introduction 340 DEFINITIONS AND BASIC CONCEPTS 340 10.2 Solubility Limit 341 10.3 Phases 341 10.4 Microstructure 342 10.5 Phase Equilibria 342 10.6 One-Component (or Unary) Phase Diagrams 343 BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS 345 10.7 Binary Isomorphous Systems 345 10.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 347 10.9 Development of Microstructure in Isomorphous Alloys 351 10.10 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys 355 10.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 356 10.12 Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys 361 10.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate Phases or Compounds 369 10.14 Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions 371 10.15 Congruent Phase Transformations 372 10.16 Ceramic Phase Diagrams 373 10.17 Ternary Phase Diagrams 378 10.18 The Gibbs Phase Rule 378 THE IRON–CARBON SYSTEM 380 10.19 The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram 380 10.20 Development of Microstructure in Iron–Carbon Alloys 384 10.21 The Influence of Other Alloying Elements 391 Summary 392 Important Terms and Concepts 394 References 394 Questions and Problems 394 11 Phase Transformations 400 Learning Objectives 401 11.1 Introduction 401 PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS IN METALS 401 11.2 Basic Concepts 402 11.3 The Kinetics of Phase Transformations 402 11.4 Metastable Versus Equilibrium States 413Contents • xix MICROSTRUCTURAL AND PROPERTY CHANGES IN IRON–CARBON ALLOYS 414 11.5 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 414 11.6 Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams 426 11.7 Mechanical Behavior of Iron–Carbon Alloys 430 11.8 Tempered Martensite 434 11.9 Review of Phase Transformations and Mechanical Properties for Iron–Carbon Alloys 437 PRECIPITATION HARDENING 438 11.10 Heat Treatments 441 11.11 Mechanism of Hardening 443 11.12 Miscellaneous Considerations 446 CRYSTALLIZATION, MELTING, AND GLASS TRANSITION PHENOMENA IN POLYMERS 447 11.13 Crystallization 447 11.14 Melting 448 11.15 The Glass Transition 448 11.16 Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 449 11.17 Factors That Influence Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 450 Summary 452 Important Terms and Concepts 454 References 454 Questions and Problems 454 12 Electrical Properties 460 Learning Objectives 461 12.1 Introduction 461 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION 461 12.2 Ohm’s Law 461 12.3 Electrical Conductivity 462 12.4 Electronic and Ionic Conduction 463 12.5 Energy Band Structures in Solids 463 12.6 Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models 466 12.7 Electron Mobility 467 12.8 Electrical Resistivity of Metals 469 12.9 Electrical Characteristics of Commercial Alloys 471 SEMICONDUCTIVITY 474 12.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction 474 12.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction 477 12.12 The Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentration 481 12.13 Factors That Affect Carrier Mobility 483 12.14 The Hall Effect 488 12.15 Semiconductor Devices 489 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN IONIC CERAMICS AND IN POLYMERS 496 12.16 Conduction in Ionic Materials 497 12.17 Electrical Properties of Polymers 497 DIELECTRIC BEHAVIOR 498 12.18 Capacitance 498 12.19 Field Vectors and Polarization 500 12.20 Types of Polarization 504 12.21 Frequency Dependence of the Dielectric Constant 505 12.22 Dielectric Strength 506 12.23 Dielectric Materials 507 OTHER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS 507 12.24 Ferroelectricity 507 12.25 Piezoelectricity 508 Summary 509 Important Terms and Concepts 511 References 511 Questions and Problems 512 13 Types and Applications of Materials 516 Learning Objectives 517 13.1 Introduction 517 TYPES OF METAL ALLOYS 517 13.2 Ferrous Alloys 517 13.3 Nonferrous Alloys 530 TYPES OF CERAMICS 540 13.4 Glasses 541 13.5 Glass–Ceramics 541xx • Contents 13.6 Clay Products 543 13.7 Refractories 543 13.8 Abrasives 545 13.9 Cements 546 13.10 Advanced Ceramics 547 13.11 Diamond and Graphite 550 TYPES OF POLYMERS 552 13.12 Plastics 552 13.13 Elastomers 552 13.14 Fibers 557 13.15 Miscellaneous Applications 557 13.16 Advanced Polymeric Materials 559 Summary 563 Important Terms and Concepts 565 References 565 Questions and Problems 566 14 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials 568 Learning Objectives 569 14.1 Introduction 569 FABRICATION OF METALS 569 14.2 Forming Operations 569 14.3 Casting 571 14.4 Miscellaneous Techniques 573 THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS 574 14.5 Annealing Processes 575 14.6 Heat Treatment of Steels 577 FABRICATION OF CERAMIC MATERIALS 589 14.7 Fabrication and Processing of Glasses and Glass– Ceramics 589 14.8 Fabrication and Processing of Clay Products 594 14.9 Powder Pressing 600 14.10 Tape Casting 602 SYNTHESIS AND FABRICATION OF POLYMERS 603 14.11 Polymerization 603 14.12 Polymer Additives 606 14.13 Forming Techniques for Plastics 607 14.14 Fabrication of Elastomers 610 14.15 Fabrication of Fibers and Films 610 Summary 612 Important Terms and Concepts 613 References 614 Questions and Problems 614 15 Composites 617 Learning Objectives 618 15.1 Introduction 618 PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 620 15.2 Large–Particle Composites 620 15.3 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites 624 FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 625 15.4 Influence of Fiber Length 625 15.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration 626 15.6 The Fiber Phase 635 15.7 The Matrix Phase 637 15.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites 637 15.9 Metal-Matrix Composites 644 15.10 Ceramic-Matrix Composites 645 15.11 Carbon–Carbon Composites 646 15.12 Hybrid Composites 647 15.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites 648 STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES 650 15.14 Laminar Composites 651 15.15 Sandwich Panels 651 Summary 654 Important Terms and Concepts 656 References 656 Questions and Problems 656 16 Corrosion and Degradation of Materials 660 Learning Objectives 661 16.1 Introduction 661 CORROSION OF METALS 661 16.2 Electrochemical Considerations 662 16.3 Corrosion Rates 670 16.4 Prediction of Corrosion Rates 671 16.5 Passivity 678Contents • xxi 16.6 Environmental Effects 680 16.7 Forms of Corrosion 680 16.8 Corrosion Environments 688 16.9 Corrosion Prevention 689 16.10 Oxidation 691 CORROSION OF CERAMIC MATERIALS 694 16.11 Swelling and Dissolution 695 16.12 Bond Rupture 697 16.13 Weathering 699 Summary 699 Important Terms and Concepts 701 References 701 Questions and Problems 701 17 Thermal Properties 705 Learning Objectives 706 17.1 Introduction 706 17.2 Heat Capacity 706 17.3 Thermal Expansion 708 17.4 Thermal Conductivity 711 17.5 Thermal Stresses 716 Summary 718 Important Terms and Concepts 719 References 719 Questions and Problems 719 18 Magnetic Properties 722 Learning Objectives 723 18.1 Introduction 723 18.2 Basic Concepts 723 18.3 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism 727 18.4 Ferromagnetism 729 18.5 Antiferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism 731 18.6 The Influence of Temperature on Magnetic Behavior 735 18.7 Domains and Hysteresis 736 18.8 Magnetic Anisotropy 740 18.9 Soft Magnetic Materials 741 18.10 Hard Magnetic Materials 744 18.11 Magnetic Storage 747 18.12 Superconductivity 750 Summary 753 Important Terms and Concepts 755 References 755 Questions and Problems 755 19 Optical Properties 759 Learning Objectives 760 19.1 Introduction 760 BASIC CONCEPTS 760 19.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 760 19.3 Light Interactions With Solids 762 19.4 Atomic and Electronic Interactions 763 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS 764 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF NONMETALS 765 19.5 Refraction 765 19.6 Reflection 767 19.7 Absorption 768 19.8 Transmission 771 19.9 Color 772 19.10 Opacity and Translucency in Insulators 774 APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL PHENOMENA 775 19.11 Luminescence 775 19.12 Photoconductivity 775 19.13 Lasers 778 19.14 Optical Fibers in Communications 781 Summary 785 Important Terms and Concepts 787 References 787 Questions and Problems 787 20 Economic, Environmental, and Societal Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 789 Learning Objectives 790 20.1 Introduction 790 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS 790 20.2 Component Design 791 20.3 Materials 791 20.4 Manufacturing Techniques 791 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIETAL CONSIDERATIONS 792 20.5 Recycling Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 794 Summary 797 References 798 Design Questions 798xxii • Contents Appendix A The International System of Units (SI) 799 Appendix B Properties of Selected Engineering Materials 801 B.1 Density 801 B.2 Modulus of Elasticity 804 B.3 Poisson’s Ratio 808 B.4 Strength and Ductility 809 B.5 Plane Strain Fracture Toughness 814 B.6 Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 815 B.7 Thermal Conductivity 819 B.8 Specific Heat 822 B.9 Electrical Resistivity 824 B.10 Metal Alloy Compositions 827 Appendix C Costs and Relative Costs for Selected Engineering Materials 829 Appendix D Repeat Unit Structures for Common Polymers 834 Appendix E Glass Transition and Melting Temperatures for Common Polymeric Materials 838 Glossary 839 Answers to Selected Problems 855 Index 859List of Symbols The number of the section in which a symbol is introduced or explained is given in parentheses. A = area ◦A = angstrom unit Ai = atomic weight of element i (2.2) APF = atomic packing factor (3.4) a = lattice parameter: unit cell x-axial length (3.4) a = crack length of a surface crack (9.5) at% = atom percent (5.6) B = magnetic flux density (induction) (18.2) Br = magnetic remanence (18.7) BCC = body-centered cubic crystal structure (3.4) b = lattice parameter: unit cell y-axial length (3.11) b = Burgers vector (5.7) C = capacitance (12.18) C i = concentration (composition) of component i in wt% (5.6) C ′ i = concentration (composition) of component i in at% (5.6) Cv, Cp = heat capacity at constant volume, pressure (17.2) CPR = corrosion penetration rate (16.3) CVN = Charpy V-notch (9.8) %CW = percent cold work (8.11) c = lattice parameter: unit cell z-axial length (3.11) cv, cp = specific heat at constant volume, pressure (17.2) D = diffusion coefficient (6.3) D = dielectric displacement (12.19) DP = degree of polymerization (4.5) d = diameter d = average grain diameter (8.9) dhkl = interplanar spacing for planes of Miller indices h, k, and l (3.20) E = energy (2.5) E = modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus (7.3) e = electric field intensity (12.3) Ef = Fermi energy (12.5) E g = band gap energy (12.6) Er(t) = relaxation modulus (7.15) %EL = ductility, in percent elongation (7.6) e = electric charge per electron (12.7) e– = electron (16.2) erf = Gaussian error function (6.4) exp = e, the base for natural logarithms F = force, interatomic or mechanical (2.5, 7.2) f = Faraday constant (16.2) FCC = face-centered cubic crystal structure (3.4) G = shear modulus (7.3) H = magnetic field strength (18.2) Hc = magnetic coercivity (18.7) HB = Brinell hardness (7.16) HCP = hexagonal close-packed crystal structure (3.4) HK = Knoop hardness (7.16) HRB, HRF = Rockwell hardness: B and F scales (7.16) • xxiiixxiv • List of Symbols HR15N, HR45W = superficial Rockwell hardness: 15N and 45W scales (7.16) HV = Vickers hardness (7.16) h = Planck’s constant (19.2) (hkl ) = Miller indices for a crystallographic plane (3.14) I = electric current (12.2) I = intensity of electromagnetic radiation (19.3) i = current density (16.3) iC = corrosion current density (16.4) J = diffusion flux (6.3) J = electric current density (12.3) Kc = fracture toughness (9.5) KIc = plane strain fracture toughness for mode I crack surface displacement (9.5) k = Boltzmann’s constant (5.2) k = thermal conductivity (17.4) l = length lc = critical fiber length (15.4) ln = natural logarithm log = logarithm taken to base 10 M = magnetization (18.2) Mn = polymer number-average molecular weight (4.5) Mw = polymer weight-average molecular weight (4.5) mol% = mole percent N = number of fatigue cycles (9.10) NA = Avogadro’s number (3.5) Nf = fatigue life (9.10) n = principal quantum number (2.3) n = number of atoms per unit cell (3.5) n = strain-hardening exponent (7.7) n = number of electrons in an electrochemical reaction (16.2) n = number of conducting electrons per cubic meter (12.7) n = index of refraction (19.5) n′ = for ceramics, the number of formula units per unit cell (3.7) ni = intrinsic carrier (electron and hole) concentration (12.10) P = dielectric polarization (12.19) P–B ratio = Pilling–Bedworth ratio (16.10) p = number of holes per cubic meter (12.10) Q = activation energy Q = magnitude of charge stored (12.18) R = atomic radius (3.4) R = gas constant %RA = ductility, in percent reduction in area (7.6) r = interatomic distance (2.5) r = reaction rate (16.3) rA, rC = anion and cation ionic radii (3.6) S = fatigue stress amplitude (9.10) SEM = scanning electron microscopy or microscope T = temperature Tc = Curie temperature (18.6) TC = superconducting critical temperature (18.12) Tg = glass transition temperature (11.15) Tm = melting temperature TEM = transmission electron microscopy or microscope TS = tensile strength (7.6) t = time tr = rupture lifetime (9.15) Ur = modulus of resilience (7.6) [uvw] = indices for a crystallographic direction (3.13) V = electrical potential difference (voltage) (12.2) VC = unit cell volume (3.4) VC = corrosion potential (16.4) VH = Hall voltage (12.14) Vi = volume fraction of phase i (10.8) v = velocity vol% = volume percent Wi = mass fraction of phase i (10.8) wt% = weight percent (5.6) x = length x = space coordinate Y = dimensionless parameter or function in fracture toughness expression(9.5)List of Symbols • xxv y = space coordinate z = space coordinate α = lattice parameter: unit cell y–z interaxial angle (3.11) α, β, γ = phase designations αl = linear coefficient of thermal expansion (17.3) β = lattice parameter: unit cell x–z interaxial angle (3.11) γ = lattice parameter: unit cell x–y interaxial angle (3.11) γ = shear strain (7.2) 1 = precedes the symbol of a parameter to denote finite change ² = engineering strain (7.2) ² = dielectric permittivity (12.18) ²r = dielectric constant or relative permittivity (12.18) ²s = steady-state creep rate (9.16) ²T = true strain (7.7) η = viscosity (8.16) η = overvoltage (16.4) θ = Bragg diffraction angle (3.20) θD = Debye temperature (17.2) λ = wavelength of electromagnetic radiation (3.20) μ = magnetic permeability (18.2) μB = Bohr magneton (18.2) μr = relative magnetic permeability (18.2) μe = electron mobility (12.7) μh = hole mobility (12.10) ν = Poisson’s ratio (7.5) ν = frequency of electromagnetic radiation (19.2) ρ = density (3.5) ρ = electrical resistivity (12.2) ρt = radius of curvature at the tip of a crack (9.5) σ = engineering stress, tensile or compressive (7.2) σ = electrical conductivity (12.3) σ* = longitudinal strength (composite) (15.5) σ c = critical stress for crack propagation (9.5) σf s = flexural strength (7.10) σm = maximum stress (9.5) σm = mean stress (9.9) σ ′ m = stress in matrix at composite failure (15.5) σT = true stress (7.7) σw = safe or working stress (7.20) σy = yield strength (7.6) τ = shear stress (7.2) τ c = fiber–matrix bond strength/matrix shear yield strength (15.4) τcrss = critical resolved shear stress (8.6) χm = magnetic susceptibility (18.2) SUBSCRIPTS c = composite cd = discontinuous fibrous composite cl = longitudinal direction (aligned fibrous composite) ct = transverse direction (aligned fibrous composite) f = final f = at fracture f = fiber i = instantaneous m = matrix m, max = maximum min = minimum 0 = original 0 = at equilibrium 0 = in a vacuum Index Page numbers in italics refer to the glossary. A Abrasive ceramics, 540, 545 Abrasives, 839 Absorption coefficient, 770 Absorption of light: in metals, 764–765 in nonmetals, 765–775 Absorptivity, 763 ABS polymer, 553 AmBnXp crystal structures, 51 Acceptors, 480, 839 Acetic acid, 101 Acetylene, 99 Acid rain, as corrosion environment, 688 Acids (organic), 101 Acid slags, 544 Acrylics, see Poly(methyl methacrylate) Acrylonitrile, see Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) Acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber, 556 Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), 553 Activation energy, 839 for creep, 329 for diffusion, 172, 406 free, 404, 409 for viscous flow, 615 Activation polarization, 671–673, 839 Actuator, 12, 547 Addition polymerization, 603–604, 839 Additives, polymer, 606–607 Adhesives, 538, 839 Adipic acid (structure), 605 Adsorption, 148 Advanced ceramics, 540, 547–550 Advanced materials, 10 Advanced polymers, 559–563 Age hardening, see Precipitation hardening Air, as quenching medium, 581 AISI/SAE steel designation scheme, 520 Akermanite, 55 Alcohols, 101 Aldehydes, 101 Alkali metals, 23–24 Alkaline earth metals, 23–24 Allotropic transformation (tin), 63 Allotropy, 61, 839 Alloys, 5, 839. See also Solid solutions; specific alloys atomic weight equations, 139 cast, 530 composition specification, 136–137 compositions for various, 827–828 costs, 829–831 defined, 133 density equations, 139 density values, 801–803 ductility values, 809–811 electrical resistivity values, 824–825 fracture toughness values, 300, 814 heat treatable, 531 high-temperature, 331 linear coefficient of thermal expansion values, 815–816 low expansion, 712 modulus of elasticity values, 804–806 Poisson’s ratio values, 808 specific heat values, 822–823 strengthening, see Strengthening of metals tensile strength values, 809–811 thermal conductivity values, 819–820 wrought, 530 yield strength values, 809–811 Alloy steels, 423, 518, 839. See also Steels Alnico, 745 α Iron, see Ferrite (α) Alternating copolymers, 116, 117, 839 Alumina, see Aluminum oxide Aluminosilicates, 595 Aluminum: atomic radius and crystal structure, 40 bonding energy and melting temperature, 28 elastic and shear moduli, 193 electrical conductivity, 469, 471 electrical wires, 472–473 for integrated circuit interconnects, 178–179 Poisson’s ratio, 193 recrystallization temperature, 268 slip systems, 249 superconducting critical temperature, 752 thermal properties, 709 yield and tensile strengths, ductility, 205 Aluminum alloys, 532–534 fatigue behavior, 336 plane strain fracture toughness, 300, 814 precipitation hardening, 443–445 properties and applications, 534 • 859860 • Index Aluminum-copper alloys, phase diagram, 444 Aluminum-lithium alloys, 533, 534 Aluminum oxide: electrical conductivity, 496 flexural strength, 205, 812 hardness, 229 index of refraction, 767 modulus of elasticity, 193, 806 plane strain fracture toughness, 300, 814 Poisson’s ratio, 193, 808 sintered microstructure, 602 stress-strain behavior, 213 thermal properties, 709 translucency, 4, 774 as whiskers and fibers, 636 Aluminum oxide-chromium oxide phase diagram, 375 Ammonia, bonding energy and melting temperature, 28 Amorphous materials, 38, 87–88, 839 Anelasticity, 196, 839 Angle computation between two crystallographic directions, 252 Anions, 45, 839 Anisotropy, 82, 839 of elastic modulus, 197, 822 magnetic, 740–741, 743 Annealing, 575, 576–577, 839 ferrous alloys, 576–577 glass, 593 Annealing point, glass, 590, 839 Annealing twins, 147 Anodes, 662, 839 area effect, galvanic corrosion, 681 sacrificial, 690, 850 Antiferromagnetism, 731, 839 temperature dependence, 735 Aramid: fiber-reinforced polymer-matrix composites, 639–640 melting and glass transition temperatures, 838 properties as fiber, 636 repeat unit structure, 639, 836 Argon, bonding energy and melting temperature, 28 Aromatic hydrocarbons (chain groups), 101, 450, 451 Arrhenius equation, 411 Artificial aging, 446, 839 Asphaltic concrete, 623 ASTM standards, 187 Atactic configuration, 113, 839 Athermal transformation, 423, 839 Atomic bonding, see Bonding Atomic mass, 16 Atomic mass unit (amu), 16–17, 839 Atomic models: Bohr, 17–18, 19, 840 wave-mechanical, 18, 19, 853 Atomic number, 16, 839 Atomic packing factor, 41, 839 Atomic point defects, 128, 130–131 Atomic radii, of selected metals, 40 Atomic structure, 16–24 Atomic vibrations, 147, 149, 706–707, 839 Atomic weight, 16, 839 metal alloys, equations for, 139 Atom percent, 138, 840 Austenite, 381, 840 shape-memory phase transformations, 439–440 transformations, 414–429 summary, 437–438 Austenitic stainless steels, 522, 523 Austenitizing, 576, 840 Average value, 230 Avogadro’s number, 17 Avrami equation, 412, 447 AX crystal structures, 49–50 A mXp crystal structures, 50–51 B Bainite, 417–419, 426, 437, 840 mechanical properties, 432–433 Bakelite, see Phenol-formaldehyde (Bakelite) Ball bearings, ceramic, 549 Band gap, 466–467 Band gap energy, 840 selected semiconductors, 474 Bands, see Energy bands Barcol hardness, 229 Barium titanate: crystal structure, 51, 508 as dielectric, 507 as ferroelectric, 507–508 as piezoelectric, 509, 550 Base (transistor), 492 Basic refractories, 545 Basic slags, 544 Beachmarks (fatigue), 320 Bend strength, 212. See also Flexural strength Beryllia, 545 Beryllium-copper alloys, 531 Beverage containers, 1, 789 corrosion of, 789 diffusion rate of CO2 through, 180–181 stages of production, 568 Bifunctional repeat units, 105, 840 Billiard balls, 516, 555 Bimetallic strips, 720 Binary eutectic alloys, 356–369 Binary isomorphous alloys, 345–355 mechanical properties, 355 microstructure development, equilibrium cooling, 351–353 microstructure development, nonequilibrium cooling, 353–355 Biodegradable beverage can, 789 Biomaterials, 11 Block copolymers, 116, 117, 840 Blowing, of glass, 591 Blow molding, plastics, 610 Body-centered cubic structure, 41–42, 840 Burgers vector for, 249 slip systems, 249 twinning in, 255–256 Bohr atomic model, 17–18, 19, 840 Bohr magneton, 727, 840 Boltzmann’s constant, 129, 840 Bonding: carbon-carbon, 103 cementitious, 546–547 covalent, 28–29, 45, 841 hybrid sp, 22 hydrogen, 31, 32–33, 845 ionic, 27–28, 45, 845 metallic, 30, 847 van der Waals, see van der Waals bonding Bonding energy, 26, 840 and melting temperature for selected materials, 28 Bonding forces, 24–25 Bond rupture, in polymers, 697–698 Bone, as composite, 618 Boron carbide: hardness, 229 Boron: boron-doped silicon semiconductors, 479Index • 861 fiber-reinforced composites, 640, 644 properties as a fiber, 636 Borosilicate glass: composition, 541 electrical conductivity, 496 viscosity, 591 Borsic fiber-reinforced composites, 644 Bottom-up science, 12 Bragg’s law, 84–85, 840 Branched polymers, 110, 111, 840 Brass, 531, 532, 840 annealing behavior, 267 elastic and shear moduli, 193 electrical conductivity, 469 fatigue behavior, 336 phase diagram, 369, 370 Poisson’s ratio, 193 recrystallization temperature, 268 stress corrosion, 686 stress-strain behavior, 202 thermal properties, 709 yield and tensile strengths, ductility, 205 Brazing, 573, 840 Breakdown, dielectric, 491, 507 Brinell hardness tests, 224, 225 Brittle fracture, 203, 288, 290, 293–296, 840 ceramics, 304–308 Brittle materials, thermal shock, 717–718 Bronze, 531, 532, 840 Bronze age, 2 Buckminsterfullerene, 59 Burgers vector, 141, 840 for FCC, BCC, and HCP, 249 magnitude computation, 284 Butadiene: degradation resistance, 696 melting and glass transition temperatures, 838 repeat unit structure, 118, 835 Butane, 99–100 C Cadmium sulfide: color, 772 electrical characteristics, 474 Calcination, 546, 840 Calendering, 649 Capacitance, 498–500, 840 Capacitors, 499–504 Carbon: vs. graphite, 636, 639 polymorphism, 61 Carbon black, as reinforcement in rubbers, 552, 554, 621–622 Carbon-carbon composites, 646–647, 840 Carbon diffusion, in steels, 385, 435 Carbon fiber-reinforced polymer-matrix composites, 638–639, 640 Carbon fibers, 638–639 properties as fiber, 636 Carbon nanotubes, 13, 60 Carburizing, 166, 169, 840 Case-hardened gear, 161 Case hardening, 161, 324–325, 840 Cast alloys, 530 Casting techniques: metals, 571–573 plastics, 610 slip, 596–597 tape, 602 Cast irons, 383, 518, 523–530, 840 annealing, 577 compositions, mechanical properties, and applications, 527 graphite formation in, 524 heat treatment effect on microstructure, 528 phase diagram, 524, 528 Catalysts, 148 Catalytic converters (automobiles), 148 Cathodes, 663, 840 Cathodic protection, 682, 689–691, 840 Cations, 45, 840 Cemented carbide, 621, 622 Cementite, 381–383, 840 decomposition, 524, 528 proeutectoid, 388–389 in white iron, 526, 528 Cementitious bond, 546–547 Cements, 540, 546–547, 840 Ceramic ball bearings, 549 Ceramic-matrix composites, 645–646, 840 Ceramics, 7–8, 840. See also Glass advanced, 547–550 application-classification scheme, 540 brittle fracture, 304–308 coefficient of thermal expansion values, 709, 817 color, 772–773 corrosion, 694 costs, 831–832 crystal structures, 45–52 summary, 51 defects, 130–133 defined, 7–8 density computation, 52–53 density values, 803 elastic modulus values, 193, 806 electrical conductivity values for selected, 496 electrical resistivity values, 826 fabrication techniques classification, 589 flexural strength values, 205, 812 fractography of, 305–308 fracture toughness values, 300, 814–815 impurities in, 135–136 indices of refraction, 767 as electrical insulators, 496, 507 magnetic, 731–735 mechanical properties of, 211–214 in MEMS, 548 phase diagrams, 373–377 piezoelectric, 12, 550 plastic deformation, 270–272 Poisson’s ratio values, 193, 808 porosity, 213–214, 601–602 porosity, influence on properties, 213–214 silicates, 54–57 specific heat values, 709, 823 as superconductors, 753 thermal conductivity values, 709, 820 thermal properties, 709, 711, 714–715, 717–718 traditional, 547 translucency and opacity, 774 Cercor (glass ceramic), 542 Cermets, 621, 840 Cesium chloride structure, 49 Chain-folded model, 121, 122, 840 Chain-reaction polymerization, see Addition polymerization Chain stiffening/stiffness, 109, 450, 451 Charge carriers: majority vs. minority, 479 temperature dependence, 481–483862 • Index Charpy impact test, 310–311, 841 Chevron markings, 293 Chips, semiconductor, 495 Chlorine, bonding energy and melting temperature, 28 Chloroprene, repeat unit structure, 118, 835 Chloroprene rubber: characteristics and applications, 556 melting and glass transition temperatures, 838 Cis, 114, 841 Clay, characteristics, 594–595 Clay products, 540, 543 drying and firing, 543, 597–599 fabrication, 594–597 Cleavage (brittle fracture), 293 Clinker, 546 Close-packed ceramic crystal structures, 79–80 Close-packed metal crystal structures, 77–78 Coarse pearlite, 417–418, 428, 841 Coatings (polymer), 557 Cobalt: atomic radius and crystal structure, 40 Curie temperature, 735 as ferromagnetic material, 729 magnetization curves (single crystal), 741 Coercivity (coercive force), 738, 841 Cold work, percent, 260 Cold working, 841. See also Strain hardening Collector, 492–493 Color, 841 metals, 764–765 nonmetals, 772–773 Colorants, 607, 841 Compacted graphite iron, 518, 526, 529–530 Compliance, creep, 222 Component, 340, 378, 841 Composites: aramid fiber-reinforced polymer, 639–640 carbon-carbon, 646–647, 840 carbon fiber-reinforced polymer, 638–639 ceramic-matrix, 645–646 classification scheme, 619–620 costs, 833 definition, 9, 618 dispersion-strengthened, 624 elastic behavior: longitudinal, 628–629 transverse, 631 fiber-reinforced, see Fiber-reinforced composites glass fiber-reinforced polymer, 637–638 hybrid, 647, 845 laminar, 619, 635, 651, 846 large-particle, 619, 620–624 metal-matrix, 644–645 particle-reinforced, 620–625 production processes, 648–650 properties, glass-, carbon-, aramid-fiber reinforced, 640 rule of mixtures expressions, 620, 629, 631, 632, 633, 634, 643 strength: longitudinal, 632 transverse, 633 stress-strain behavior, 627–628 structural, 650–652 Composition, 841 conversion equations, 138, 160 specification of, 136–137 Compression molding, plastics, 608 Compression tests, 190 Compressive deformation, 189, 211 Computers, semiconductors in, 494–496 Concentration, 136, 841. See also Composition Concentration cells, 682 Concentration gradient, 166, 841 Concentration polarization, 673–674, 841 Concentration profile, 165, 841 Concrete, 622–624, 841 electrical conductivity, 496 plane strain fracture toughness, 300, 814 Condensation polymerization, 605, 841 Conducting polymers, 497–498 Conduction: electronic, 463 ionic, 463, 497 Conduction band, 465, 841 Conductivity, see Electrical conductivity; Thermal conductivity Configuration, molecular, 111–113 Conformation, molecular, 109 Congruent phase transformations, 372–373, 841 Constitutional diagrams, see Phase diagrams Continuous casting, 572–573 Continuous cooling transformation diagrams, 426–429, 841 4340 steel, 429 0.35 wt% C steel, 457 0.76 wt% C steel, 427 for glass-ceramic, 542 Continuous fibers, 626 Conventional hard magnetic materials, 745 Conversion factors, magnetic units, 726 Cooling rate, of cylindrical rounds, 583 Coordinates, point, 64–66 Coordination numbers, 41, 43, 46–47, 54, 841 Copolymers, 105, 116–117, 841 styrenic block, 562–563 Copper: atomic radius and crystal structure, 40 elastic and shear moduli, 193 electrical conductivity, 469 OFHC, 471 Poisson’s ratio, 193 recrystallization, 268, 413 slip systems, 249 thermal properties, 709 yield and tensile strengths, ductility, 205 Copper alloys, 531–532 properties and applications of, 532 Copper-aluminum phase diagram, 444 Copper-beryllium alloys, 472, 531 phase diagram, 458 Copper-nickel alloys: ductility vs. composition, 259, 355 electrical conductivity, 470 phase diagram, 345–346 tensile strength vs. composition, 259, 355 yield strength vs. composition, 259 Copper-silver phase diagram, 356, 379 Coring, 355 Corningware (glass ceramic), 542 Corrosion, 841Index • 863 of beverage cans, 789 ceramic materials, 694 electrochemistry of, 662–668 environmental effects, 680 environments, 688–689 forms of, 680–688 galvanic series, 669–670 overview of, 661 passivity, 678–679, 848 rates, 670 prediction of, 671–678 Corrosion fatigue, 325–326, 841 Corrosion inhibitors, 689 Corrosion penetration rate, 670, 841 Corrosion prevention, 689–691 Corundum, 545. See also Aluminum oxide crystal structure, 96 Cost of various materials, 829–833 Coulombic force, 27, 841 Covalency, degree of, 29 Covalent bonding, 28–29, 45–46, 98, 841 Crack configurations in ceramics, 306 Crack critical velocity, 306 Crack formation, 290 in ceramics, 306 fatigue and, 320 glass, 593 Crack propagation, 290. See also Fracture mechanics in brittle fracture, 293 in ceramics, 304–308 in ductile fracture, 290–291 fatigue and, 320–322 Cracks: stable vs. unstable, 290 Crack surface displacement modes, 299, 300 Crazing, 309 Creep, 326–331, 841 ceramics, 331 influence of temperature and stress on, 328–329 mechanisms, 329 in polymers, 221–222, 331 stages of, 326–327 steady-state rate, 327 viscoelastic, 221–222 Creep compliance, 222 Creep modulus, 222 Creep rupture tests, 327 data extrapolation, 329–330 Crevice corrosion, 682–683, 841 Cristobalite, 54, 377 Critical cooling rate: ferrous alloys, 427–429 glass-ceramics, 542 Critical fiber length, 625–626 Critical resolved shear stress, 250, 841 as related to dislocation density, 285 Critical stress (fracture), 297 Critical temperature, superconductivity, 750, 752 Critical velocity (crack), 306, 308 Crosslinking, 110–111, 841 elastomers, 278–279 influence on viscoelastic behavior, 221 thermosetting polymers, 116 Crystalline materials, 38, 80, 841 defects, 128–149 single crystals, 80–81, 850 Crystallinity, polymers, 117–121, 841 influence on mechanical properties, 276 Crystallites, 121, 841 Crystallization, polymers, 447–448 Crystallographic directions, 66–70 easy and hard magnetization, 741 families, 68 Crystallographic planes, 70–75 atomic arrangements, 73–74 close-packed, ceramics, 79–80 close-packed, metals, 77–78 diffraction by, 83–85 families, 74 Crystallographic point coordinates, 64–66 Crystal structures, 38–44, 842. See also Body-centered cubic structure; Close-packed crystal structures; Face-centered cubic structure; Hexagonal close-packed structure ceramics, 45–52 close-packed, ceramics, 79–80 close-packed, metals, 77–78 determination by x-ray diffraction, 83–87 selected metals, 40 types, ceramics, 45–52, 79–80 types, metals, 40–43, 77–78 Crystallization (ceramics), 541, 594, 841 Crystal systems, 61–62, 842 Cubic crystal system, 61, 62 Cubic ferrites, 731–735 Cunife, 745, 746 Cup-and-cone fracture, 291 Curie temperature, 735, 842 ferroelectric, 507 ferromagnetic, 708 Curing, plastics, 608 Current density, 462 Cyclic stresses, 315–316 D Damping capacity, steel vs. cast iron, 525, 528 Data scatter, 229–230 Debye temperature, 707, 708 Decarburization, 166 Defects, see also Dislocations atomic vibrations and, 147, 149 dependence of properties on, 127 in ceramics, 130–133, 135 interfacial, 144–147 point, 128–133, 848 in polymers, 136, 137 surface, 148 volume, 147 Defect structure, 130, 842 Deformation: elastic, see Elastic deformation elastomers, 278–279 plastic, see Plastic deformation Deformation mechanism maps (creep), 329 Deformation mechanisms (semicrystalline polymers), elastic deformation, 272–273 plastic deformations, 274, 275 Degradation of polymers, 695–699, 842 Degree of polymerization, 107, 842 Degrees of freedom, 378 Delayed fracture, 304 Density: computation for ceramics, 52–53 computation for metal alloys, 139 computation for metals, 44–45 computation for polymers, 120 of dislocations, 246 linear atomic, 75–76 planar atomic, 76 polymers (values for), 803–804 ranges for material types (bar chart), 6864 • Index Density (continued) relation to percent crystallinity for polymers, 119 values for various materials, 801–804 Design, component, 791 Design examples: cold work and recrystallization, 268–269 conductivity of a p-type semiconductor, 486–487 cubic mixed-ferrite magnet, 734–735 creep rupture lifetime for an S-590 steel, 330–331 nonsteady-state diffusion, 176–177 spherical pressure vessel, failure of, 301–304 steel shaft, alloy/heat treatment of, 586–587 tensile-testing apparatus, 232–233 tubular composite shaft, 641–644 Design factor, 232 Design stress, 232, 842 Dezincification, of brass, 685 Diamagnetism, 727–728, 842 Diamond, 58, 550–551 as abrasive, 545 bonding energy and melting temperature, 28 cost, 831 films, 550–551 hardness, 229 thermal conductivity, 820 Diamond cubic structure, 58 Die casting, 572 Dielectric breakdown, 491, 507 Dielectric constant, 500, 842 frequency dependence, 505–506 relationship to refractive index, 766 selected ceramics and polymers, 500 Dielectric displacement, 501, 842 Dielectric loss, 506 Dielectric materials, 498, 507, 842 Dielectric strength, 507, 842 selected ceramics and polymers, 500 Diffraction (x-ray), 83–84, 842 Diffraction angle, 86 Diffractometers, 85 Diffusion, 162–163, 842 grain growth and, 269 in ionic materials, 177 in integrated circuit interconnects, 178–179 in Si of Cu, Au, Ag, and Al, 178 interstitial, 164, 845 mechanisms, 163–164 and microstructure development, 351–355, 365–366 nonsteady-state, 167–171, 847 in polymers, 179–181 short-circuit, 177 steady-state, 165–167, 851 vacancy, 164, 177, 853 Diffusion coefficient, 166, 842 relation to ionic mobility, 497 temperature dependence, 172–177 values for various metal systems, 171 Diffusion couples, 162 Diffusion flux, 165, 842 for polymers, 179 Digitization of information/signals, 748–749, 783 Dimethyl ether, 101 Dimethylsiloxane, 118, 554–555, 556, 835. See also Silicones; Silicone rubber melting and glass transition temperatures, 838 Diode, 490, 842 Dipole moment, 500 Dipoles: electric, 31, 842 induced, 31 magnetic, 723–724 permanent, 32 Directional solidification, 331 Directions, see Crystallographic directions Discontinuous fibers, 626 Dislocation density, 246, 284, 285, 842 Dislocation etch pits, 242 Dislocation line, 141, 142, 143, 842 Dislocation motion, 244–245 caterpillar locomotion analogy, 245–246 in ceramics, 271 at grain boundaries, 257–258 influence on strength, 257 recovery and, 264 Dislocations, 140–144, 842 in ceramics, 144, 246, 271 characteristics of, 246–248 interactions, 247 multiplication, 248 at phase boundaries, 430, 435 pile-ups, 258 plastic deformation and, 199, 243–255, 256 in polymers, 137, 144 strain fields, 246–247 Dispersed phase, 619, 842 definition, 619 geometry, 619 Dispersion (optical), 759, 765 Dispersion-strengthened composites, 624, 842 Disposal of materials, 793–794 Domain growth, 737–738 iron single crystal, 722 Domains, 730, 736–737, 742, 842 Domain walls, 736–737 Donors, 477, 842 Doping, 480, 483–484, 842 Double bonds, 98–99 Drain casting, 596 Drawing: glass, 592 influence on polymer properties, 276–277 metals, 571, 842 polymer fibers, 610–611, 842 Drift velocity, electron, 468 Driving force, 166, 842 electrochemical reactions, 665 grain growth, 269 recrystallization, 264 sintering, 601 steady-state diffusion, 166 Dry corrosion, 691 Drying, clay products, 597–598 Ductile fracture, 203–204, 290–292, 842 Ductile iron, 525, 526, 842 compositions, mechanical properties, and applications, 527 Ductile-to-brittle transition, 311–314, 842 polymers, 308 and temper embrittlement, 437 Ductility, 203–204, 842 fine and coarse pearlite, 432 precipitation hardened aluminum alloy, 445 selected materials, 205, 809–813Index • 865 spheroidite, 432 tempered martensite, 436 Durometer hardness, 226, 229 E Economics, materials selection: considerations in materials engineering, 790–791 tubular composite shaft, 641–644 Eddy currents, 742 Edge dislocations, 140, 244–245, 843. See also Dislocations interactions, 246–247 in polymers, 137 E-glass, 636, 637–638 Elastic deformation, 192–199, 843 Elastic modulus, see Modulus of elasticity Elastic (strain) recovery, 210, 843 Elastomers, 215, 278–281, 552–557, 610, 843 in composites, 621 deformation, 278–279 thermoplastic, 561–563 trade names, properties, and applications, 556 Electrical conduction: in insulators and semiconductors, 466–467 in metals, 466 Electrical conductivity, 462, 468, 469, 841 ranges for material types (bar chart), 8 selected ceramics and polymers, 496 selected metals, 469 selected semiconductors, 474 temperature variation (Ge), 513 values for electrical wires, 473 Electrical resistivity, 461–462, 850. See also Electrical conductivity metals influence of impurities, 470 influence of plastic deformation, 470, 471 influence of temperature, 469–470 values for various materials, 824–827 Electrical wires, aluminum and copper, 472–473 Electric dipole moment, 501 Electric dipoles, see Dipoles Electric field, 462, 468, 843 Electrochemical cells, 664–665 Electrochemical reactions, 662–670 Electrodeposition, 664–665 Electrode potentials, 664–665 values of, 666 Electroluminescence, 776, 843 Electrolytes, 665, 843 Electromagnetic radiation, 760–762 interactions with atoms/electrons, 763–764 Electromagnetic spectrum, 760–761 Electron band structure, see Energy bands Electron cloud, 30 Electron configurations, 21–23, 843 elements, 22 periodic table and, 23–24 stable, 21 Electronegativity, 24, 29, 843 influence on solid solubility, 134 values for the elements, 24 Electroneutrality, 130, 843 Electron gas, 466 Electronic conduction, 463, 497 Electronic polarization, 504, 550, 763, 768, 848 Electron microscopy, 150–153 Electron mobility, 468 influence of dopant content on, 483–484 influence of temperature on, 484–485 selected semiconductors, 474 Electron orbitals, 17 Electron probability distribution, 18, 19 Electrons, 16 conduction process, 476, 492–493 role, diffusion in ionic materials, 177, 179 energy bands, see Energy bands energy levels, 18–21 free, see Free electrons scattering, 468, 707 in semiconductors, 474–481 temperature variation of concentration, 481–483 spin, 19, 727 valence, 21 Electron states, 843 Electron transitions, 763–764 metals, 764–765 nonmetals, 765–767 Electron volt, 28, 843 Electropositivity, 24, 843 Electrorheological fluids, 12 Elongation, percent, 203 selected materials, 205, 809–813 selected metals, 205 selected polymers, 205 Embrittlement: hydrogen, 687–688 temper, 437 Embryo, phase particle, 403–405 Emf series, 665–666, 843 Emitter, 492 Endurance limit, 317. See also Fatigue limit Energy: activation, see Activation energy bonding, 26–28, 840 current concerns about, 13, 793–794 free, 342, 343, 402–405, 844 grain boundary, 145 photon, 762 surface, 144 vacancy formation, 129 Energy band gap, see Band gap Energy bands, 463–465 structures for metals, insulators, and semiconductors, 464–465 Energy levels (states), 17–20, 463–464 Energy and materials, 793 Energy product, magnetic, 744–745 Engineering stress/strain, 189–190, 851 Entropy, 279, 342, 402 Environmental considerations and materials, 792–797 Epoxies: degradation resistance, 696 polymer-matrix composites, 640–641 repeat unit structure, 834 trade names, characteristics, and applications, 554 Equilibrium: definition of, 342 phase, 342–343, 843 Equilibrium diagrams, see Phase diagrams Erosion-corrosion, 685–686, 843 Error bars, 230–231 Error function, Gaussian, 168 Etching, 150, 151 Etch pits, 242 Ethane, 99866 • Index Ethers, 101 Ethylene, 99 polymerization, 101–102 Ethylene glycol (structure), 605 Euro coins, alloys used for, 539 Eutectic isotherm, 357 Eutectic phase, 366, 843 Eutectic reactions, 357, 364, 843 iron-iron carbide system, 381, 383 Eutectic structure, 366, 843 Eutectic systems: binary, 356–369 microstructure development, 361–369 Eutectoid, shift of position, 391–392 Eutectoid ferrite, 387 Eutectoid reactions, 371, 843 iron-iron carbide system, 383 kinetics, 414–416 Eutectoid steel, microstructure changes/development, 384–386 Exchange current density, 672 Excited states, 764, 843 Exhaustion, in extrinsic semiconductors, 482 Expansion, thermal, see Thermal expansion Extrinsic semiconductors, 477–481, 843 electron concentration vs. temperature, 482 exhaustion, 482 saturation, 482 Extrusion, 843 clay products, 596 metals, 571 polymers, 609–610 F Fabrication: ceramics, 589–591 clay products, 594–599 fiber-reinforced composites, 648–650 metals, 569–574 Face-centered cubic structure, 40–41, 843 anion stacking (ceramics), 79–80 Burgers vector for, 249 close packed planes (metals), 77–79 slip systems, 248 Factor of safety, 232, 302 Failure, mechanical, see Creep; Fatigue; Fracture Faraday constant, 667 Fatigue, 314–326, 843 corrosion, 325–326 crack initiation and propagation, 320–322 cyclic stresses, 315–317 environmental effects, 325–326 low- and high-cycle, 319 polymers, 319–320 probability curves, 319 thermal, 325 Fatigue life, 318, 843 factors that affect, 322–325 Fatigue limit, 317, 318, 843 Fatigue strength, 317, 318, 843 Fatigue testing, 317 S-N curves, 317–319, 320, 336 Feldspar, 595 Fermi energy, 465, 480, 708, 843 Ferrimagnetism, 731–735, 843 temperature dependence, 735–736 Ferrite (α), 380–382, 843 eutectoid/proeutectoid, 339, 387–388, 849 from decomposition of cementite, 524 Ferrites (magnetic ceramics), 731–733, 843 Curie temperature, 735–736 as magnetic storage, 748 Ferritic stainless steels, 522, 523 Ferroelectricity, 507–508, 843 Ferroelectric materials, 507–508 Ferromagnetic domain walls, 147 Ferromagnetism, 729–730, 844 temperature dependence, 735–736 Ferrous alloys, 844. See also Cast irons; Iron; Steels annealing, 575–577 classification, 383, 518 continuous cooling transformation diagrams, 426–429 costs, 829–830 hypereutectoid, 388–391, 845 hypoeutectoid, 386–388, 845 isothermal transformation diagrams, 414–426 microstructures, 384–391 mechanical properties of, 430–434, 809–810 Fiber efficiency parameter, 634 Fiberglass, 541 Fiberglass-reinforced composites, 637–638 Fiber-reinforced composites, 625–650, 844 continuous and aligned, 627–633 discontinuous and aligned, 633–634 discontinuous and randomly oriented, 634–635 fiber length effect, 625–626 fiber orientation/concentration effect, 626–635 fiber phase, 635–637 longitudinal loading, 627–631, 632 matrix phase, 637 processing, 648–650 reinforcement efficiency, 635 transverse loading, 631, 633–635 Fibers, 557, 844 coefficient of thermal expansion values, 818 in composites, 619 continuous vs. discontinuous, 625–626 fiber phase, 635–637 length effect, 625–626 orientation and concentration, 626–635 costs, 833 density values
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