كتاب Steel Heat Treatment Handbook

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Steel Heat Treatment Handbook

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Chapter Steel Nomenclature
Anil Kumar Sinha, Chengjian Wu, and Guoquan Liu
Chapter Classification and Mechanisms of Steel Transformation
SS Babu
Chapter Fundamental Concepts in Steel Heat Treatment
Alexey V Sverdlin and Arnold R Ness
Chapter Effects of Alloying Elements on the Heat Treatment of Steel
Alexey V Sverdlin and Arnold R Ness
Chapter Hardenability
Bozidar Liscic
Chapter Steel Heat Treatment
Bozidar Liscic
Chapter Heat Treatment with Gaseous Atmospheres
Johann Grosch
Chapter Nitriding Techniques, Ferritic Nitrocarburizing, and
Austenitic Nitrocarburizing Techniques and Methods
David Pye
Chapter Quenching and Quenching Technology
Hans M Tensi, Anton Stich, and George E Totten
Chapter Distortion of HeatTreated Components
Michiharu Narazaki and George E Totten
Chapter Tool Steels
Elhachmi Essadiqi
Chapter Stainless Steel Heat Treatment
Angelo Fernando Padilha, Ronald Lesley Plaut, and Paulo Rangel Rios
by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Chapter Heat Treatment of Powder Metallurgy Steel Components
Joseph W Newkirk and Sanjay N Thakur
Appendices
Appendix Common Conversion Constants
Appendix Temperature Conversion Table
Appendix Volume Conversion Table
Appendix Hardness Conversion Tables: Hardened Steel and Hard Alloys
Appendix Recommended MIL Specification Steel Heat
Treatment Conditions
Appendix Colors of Hardening and Tempering Heats
Appendix Weight Tables for Steel Bars
by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Steel Nomenclature
Anil Kumar Sinha, Chengjian Wu, and Guoquan Liu
CONTENTS
Introduction
Effects of Alloying Elements
Carbon
Manganese
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Aluminum
Nitrogen
Chromium
Nickel
Molybdenum
Tungsten
Vanadium
Niobium and Tantalum
Titanium
Rare Earth Metals
Cobalt
Copper
Boron
Zirconium
Lead
Tin
Antimony
Calcium
Classification of Steels
Types of Steels Based on Deoxidation Practice
Killed Steels
Semikilled Steels
Rimmed Steels
Capped Steels
Quality Descriptors and Classifications
Classification of Steel Based on Chemical Composition
Carbon and Carbon–Manganese Steels
LowAlloy Steels
HighStrength LowAlloy Steels
Tool Steels
Stainless Steels
by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Maraging Steels
Designations for Steels
SAEAISI Designations
Carbon and Alloy Steels
HSLA Steels
Formerly Listed SAE Steels
UNS Designations
Specifications for Steels
ASTM (ASME) Specifications
AMS Specifications
Military and Federal Specifications
API Specifications
ANSI Specifications
AWS Specifications
International Specifications and Designations
ISO Designations
The Designation for Steels with Yield Strength
The Designation for Steels with Chemical Composition
GB Designations (State Standards of China)
DIN Standards
JIS Standards
BS Standards
AFNOR Standards
References
Phase Transformation Mechanisms
Microstructure Evolution during Austenite Decomposition
Allotriomorphic Ferrite
Widmansta¨tten Ferrite
Bainite
Pearlite
Martensite
Microstructure Evolution during Reheating
Tempered Martensite
Carbon Segregation and Aging of Martensite
First Stage of Tempering
Second Stage of Tempering
Third Stage of Tempering
Fourth Stage of Tempering
Austenite Formation
Summary of Steel Microstructure Evolution
Prediction of Microstructure Evolution during Heat Treatment
Calculation of Multicomponent Multiphase Diagrams
Calculation of DiffusionControlled Growth
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Introduction
Crystal Structure and Phases
Crystal Structure of Pure Iron
Iron–Carbon Equilibrium Diagram
Metastable Fe–FeC Equilibrium Diagram
Stable Fe–C Equilibrium Diagram
Effect of Carbon
Critical (Transformation) Temperatures
Structural Transformations in Steel
Austenite–Pearlite Transformation
Structure of Pearlite
Transformation of Austenite in Hypo and Hypereutectoid Steels
Martensite Transformation
Morphology of Ferrous Martensites
Bainite Transformation
Morphology of the Bainite Transformation
Tempering
Kinetics of Austenite Transformation
Isothermal Transformation Diagrams
ContinuousCooling Transformation Diagrams
Transformations That Take Place under Continuous Cooling
of Eutectoid Steels
Transformations of Austenite on Cooling in the
Martensite Range
Derivation of the ContinuousCooling Transformation Diagram
from the Isothermal Transformation Diagram
ContinuousCooling Transformation Diagram as a Function
of the Bar Diameter
Definition of Hardenability
Grain Size
Structure of Grain Boundaries
Structural Models
Determination of Grain Size
Austenite Grain Size Effect and Grain Size Control
Grain Size Refinement
Strengthening Mechanism in Steel
by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Solid Solution Strengthening
Grain Size Refinement
Dispersion Strengthening
Work Hardening (Dislocation Strengthening)
Thermal Treatment of Steels
Annealing
Quenching (Strengthening Treatment)
Tempering
References
Further Reading
Effects of Alloying Elements on Heat Treatment Processing
of Iron–Carbon Alloys
g and aPhase Regions
Eutectoid Composition and Temperature
Distribution of Alloying Elements
Alloy Carbides
Effect of Alloying Elements on Austenite Transformations
Influence of Alloying on Ferrite and Pearlite Interaction
Effect on Martensite Transformation
Retained Austenite
Effect on Bainite Transformation
Transformation Diagrams for Alloy Steels
Hardening Capacity and Hardenability of Alloy Steel
Hardness and Carbon Content
Microstructure Criterion for Hardening Capacity
Effect of Grain Size and Chemical Composition
Boron Hardening Mechanism
Austenitizing Conditions Affecting Hardenability
Tempering of Alloy Steels
Structural Changes on Tempering
Effect of Alloying Elements
Transformations of Retained Austenite (Secondary Tempering)
Time–Temperature Relationships in Tempering
Estimation of Hardness after Tempering
Effect of Tempering on Mechanical Properties
Embrittlement during Tempering
Heat Treatment of Special Category Steels
HighStrength Steels
Boron Steels
UltrahighStrength Steels
Martensitic Stainless Steels
PrecipitationHardening Steels
Structural Steels
Spring Steels
Tool Steels
HeatResistant Alloys
TransformationInduced Plasticity Steels
by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Tool Steels
Carbon Tool Steels
Alloy Tool Steels
Die Steels
HighSpeed Steels
Further Reading
Definition of Hardenability
Factors Influencing Depth of Hardening
Determination of Hardenability
Grossmann’s Hardenability Concept
Hardenability in HighCarbon Steels
Jominy EndQuench Hardenability Test
Hardenability Test Methods for ShallowHardening Steels
Hardenability Test Methods for AirHardening Steels
Hardenability Bands
Calculation of Jominy Curves from Chemical Composition
Hyperbolic Secant Method for Predicting Jominy Hardenability
Computer Calculation of Jominy Hardenability
Application of Hardenability Concept for Prediction of Hardness after Quenching
Lamont Method
Steel Selection Based on Hardenability
ComputerAided Steel Selection Based on Hardenability
Hardenability in Heat Treatment Practice
Hardenability of Carburized Steels
Hardenability of Surface Layers When ShortTime Heating Methods
Are Used
Effect of Delayed Quenching on the Hardness Distribution
A ComputerAided Method to Predict the Hardness Distribution after
Quenching Based on Jominy Hardenability Curves
Selection of Optimum Quenching Conditions
References
Fundamentals of Heat Treatment
Heat Transfer
Lattice Defects
Application of TTT (IT) and CCT Diagrams
Isothermal Transformation Diagram
Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagram
Heat Treatment Processes for Which an IT or CCT
Diagram May Be Used
Using the CCT Diagram to Predict Structural Constituents
and Hardness upon Quenching Real Workpieces
Special Cases and Limitations in the Use of CCT Diagrams
Oxidation
Scaling of Steel
Decarburization
The Effect of Alloying Elements on Decarburization
Definitions and Measurement of Decarburization
Residual Stresses, Dimensional Changes, and Distortion
Thermal Stresses in the Case of Ideal LinearElastic
Deformation Behavior
Transformational Stresses
Residual Stresses when Quenching Cylinders with Real
Elastic–Plastic Deformation Behavior
Dimensional Changes and Distortion during Hardening
and Tempering
Annealing Processes
StressRelief Annealing
Normalizing
Isothermal Annealing
Soft Annealing (Spheroidizing Annealing)
Recrystallization Annealing
Grain Recovery
Polygonization
Recrystallization and Grain Growth
Hardening by Formation of Martensite
Austenitizing
Metallurgical Aspects of Austenitizing
Technological Aspects of Austenitizing
by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Quenching Intensity Measurement and Evaluation Based on
Heat Flux Density
Retained Austenite and Cryogenic Treatment
Transforming the Retained Austenite
Hardening and Tempering of Structural Steels
Mechanical Properties Required
Technology of the Hardening and Tempering Process
ComputerAided Determination of Process Parameters
Austempering
References
General Introduction
Fundamentals in Common
Carburizing
Introduction
Carburizing and Decarburizing with Gases
Gas Equilibria
Kinetics of Carburizing
Control of Carburizing
Carbonitriding
Hardenability and Microstructures
Reactions with Hydrogen and with Oxygen
Nitriding and Nitrocarburizing
Introduction
Structural Data and Microstructures
Structural Data
Microstructures of Nitrided Iron
Microstructures of Nitrided and Nitrocarburized Steels
Microstructural Specialties
Nitriding and Nitrocarburizing Processes
Nitriding
Nitrocarburizing
Processing Effects on the Nitriding and Nitrocarburizing Results
Properties of Carburized and Nitrided or Nitrocarburized Components
References
Introduction
Process Technology
Composition of the Case
Composition of the Formed Case
Epsilon Phase
Gamma Prime Phase
Diffusion Layer
TwoStage Process of Nitriding (Floe Process)
Salt Bath Nitriding
Safety in Operating Molten Salt Baths for Nitriding
Maintenance of a Nitriding Salt Bath
Daily Maintenance Routine
Weekly Maintenance Routine
Pressure Nitriding
Fluidized Bed Nitriding
Dilution Method of Nitriding
Plasma Nitriding
Plasma Generation
Postoxy Nitriding
Glow Discharge Characteristics
Townsend Discharged Region
Corona Region
Subnormal Glow Discharge Region
Normal Glow Discharge Region
Glow Discharge Region
Arc Discharge Region
Process Control of Plasma Nitriding
Processor Gas Flow Control
TwoStage (Floe) Process of Gas Nitriding
Salt Bath Nitriding
Dilution Method of Nitriding or Precision Nitriding
Control of Precision Nitriding
by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Furnace Equipment for Nitriding
Salt Baths
Plasma Nitriding
Plasma Generation
Glow Discharge Characteristics
Plasma Control Characteristics
Equipment Technology
ColdWall Technology
Power Supply
Process Temperature Measurement
Process Gas Flow Controls
HotWall, Pulsed DC Current
Plasma Power Generation
Process Temperature Control
Temperature Control
Process Control
Low Capital Investment, High Operational Skills
Moderate Capital Investment, Moderate Operator Skills
High Capital Investment, Low Operational Skills
Metallurgical Considerations and Advantages
Metallurgical Structure of the Ion Nitrided Case
Metallurgical Results
Steel Selection
Prenitride Condition
Surface Preparation
Nitriding Cycles
Distortion and Growth
Introduction
Case Formation
Precleaning
Methods of Ferritic Nitrocarburizing
Salt Bath Ferritic Nitrocarburizing
Gaseous Ferritic Nitrocarburizing
Safety
PlasmaAssisted Ferritic Nitrocarburizing
Applications
Steel Selection
Process Techniques
Case Depth
How Deep Can the Case Go?
Ferritic Oxycarbonitride
References
Introduction
Metallurgical Transformation Behavior during Quenching
Influence of Cooling Rate
Influence of Carbon Concentration
Influence of Alloying Elements
Influence of Stresses
Quenching Processes
Wetting Kinematics
Determination of Cooling Characteristics
Acquisition of Cooling Curves with Thermocouples
Measurement of Wetting Kinematics
Conductance Measurement
Temperature Measurement
Quenching as a Heat Transfer Problem
Heat Transfer in a Solid
Heat Transfer across the Surface of a Body
Process Variables Affecting Cooling Behavior and Heat Transfer
Immersion Quenching
Bath Temperature
Effect of Agitation
Effect of Quenchant Selection
Surface Oxidation and Roughness Effects
Effect of CrossSection Size on Cooling
Effects of Cooling Edge Geometry
Effects of Steel Composition
Spray Quenching
Gas Quenching
Intensive Quenching
Property Prediction Methods
Potential Limitations to Hardness Prediction
Grossmann HValues
The QTA Method
Correlation between Hardness and Wetting Kinematics
ComputerBased Calculation of Hardness Profile
List of Symbols
References
Introduction
Basic Distortion Mechanisms
Relief of Residual Stresses
Material Movement Due to Temperature Gradients during Heating
and Cooling
Volume Changes during Phase Transformations
Residual Stresses
Residual Stress in Components
Residual Stresses Prior to Heat Treatment
Heat Treatment after WorkHardening Process
Distortion during Manufacturing
Manufacturing and Design Factors Prior to Heat Treatment That
Affect Distortion
Material Properties
Homogeneity of Material
Distribution of Residual Stress System
Part Geometry
Distortion during Component Heating
Shape Change Due to Relief of Residual Stress
Shape Change Due to Thermal Stresses
Volume Change Due to Phase Change on Heating
Distortion during HighTemperature Processing
Volume Expansion during Case Diffusion
Distortion Caused by Metal Creep
Distortion during Quenching Process
Effect of Cooling Characteristics on Residual
Stress and Distortion from Quenching
Effect of Surface Condition of Components
Minimizing Quench Distortion
Quench Uniformity
Quenching Methods
Distortion during Post Quench Processing
Straightening
Tempering
Stabilization with Tempering and Subzero Treatment
Metal Removal after Heat Treatment
by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Measurement of Residual Stresses
XRay Diffraction Method
HoleDrilling Methods
Bending and Deflection Methods
Other Residual Stress Measurement Methods
Tests for Propensity for Distortion and Cracking
Navy CRing and Slotted Disk Test
Cylindrical Specimens
Stepped Bar Test
KeySlotted Cylindrical Bar Test
Disk with an EccentricPositioned Hole
Finned Tubes
Prediction of Distortion and Residual Stresses
Governing Equations
Mixture Rule
Heat Conduction Equations and Diffusion Equation
Constitutive Equation
Kinetics of Quenching Process
Transformation Plasticity
Coupling Algorithm in Simulation by FiniteElement Analysis
Example of Simulation Results
Prediction of Warpage of Steel Shafts with Keyway
Prediction of Distortion during Carburized Quenching
Process of Cr–Mo Steel Ring
Summary
References
Introduction
Classification and Selection of Tool Steels
Selection of Tool Steels
Manufacturing Characteristics Are Related to HeatTreatment Response
Manufacturing of Tool Steels
Steelmaking
Thermomechanical Processing
Important Steel Properties Relevant to the Manufacture of Tools
Dimensional Accuracy during Heat Treatment
Hot Formability
Cold Formability
Machinability
Grindability
Polishability
Important Properties Required for Various Applications
Hardness
Hardenability
Toughness at Operational Temperature
Resistance to Thermal Fatigue
Heat Treatment
Normalizing
StressRelief Heat Treatments
Annealing
Spheroidizing
Carbides in Tool Steels
Hardening
Austenitizing
Quenching
Retained Austenite
Tempering
Characteristic Steel Grades for the Different Field of Tool Application
Bibliography
Historical Background
Phase Diagrams and Stainless Steel Typical Phases
Equilibrium Diagrams
Schaeffler, Delong, and Other Nonequilibrium Diagrams
Austenitic Stainless Steels
Solution Annealing
Stabilize Annealing
StressRelief Annealing
Bright Annealing
Martensite Formation
Transformation during Cooling
StrainInduced Transformation
Ferritic Stainless Steels
The C (F) Embrittlement
Sigma (s)Phase Embrittlement
The Chi (x) Phase
Other Phases
Processing and Heat Treatment
Duplex Stainless Steels
Three Types of Embrittlement in Duplex Stainless Steels
Processing and Heat Treatment
Martensitic Stainless Steels
Processing and Heat Treatment
PrecipitationHardenable Stainless Steels
Processing and Heat Treatment of Martensitic PH Stainless Steels
Final Remarks
References
Introduction
Overview of P=M Processing
Press and Sintering
Metal Injection Molding
Powder Forging
Designation System for P=M Steels
Overview of Heat Treatment
Effect of Porosity on the Heat Treatment of P=M Steels
Effect of Alloy Content on P=M Hardenability
Copper Content
Nickel Content
Nickel–Copper Content
Molybdenum Content
Effect of Starting Material on Homogenization
Quench and Tempering
Sinter Hardening
Warm Compaction
Powder Forging
Case Hardening
Carburizing
Carbonitriding
Induction Hardening
Nitrocarburizing
Nitriding
Steam Treating
Black Oxiding
References

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