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أخوانى فى الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Industrial High Pressure Applications Edited by Rudolf Eggers Processes, Equipment and Safety
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Contents Preface XIII List of Contributors XV Part One Introduction 1 1 Historical Retrospect on High-Pressure Processes 3 Rudolf Eggers References 6 2 Basic Engineering Aspects 7 Rudolf Eggers 2.1 What are the Specifics of High-Pressure Processes? 7 2.2 Thermodynamic Aspects: Phase Equilibrium 9 2.3 Software and Data Collection 10 2.4 Phase Equilibrium: Experimental Methods and Measuring Devices 10 2.5 Interfacial Phenomena and Data 12 2.6 Material Properties and Transport Data for Heat and Mass Transfer 20 2.7 Evaporation and Condensation at High Pressures 37 2.7.1 Evaporation 37 2.8 Condensation 43 References 46 Part Two Processes 49 3 Catalytic and Noncatalytic Chemical Synthesis 51 Joachim Rüther, Ivo Müller, and Reinhard Michel 3.1 Thermodynamics as Driver for Selection of High Pressure 51 3.1.1 Chemical Equilibrium: Law of Mass Action 51 3.1.2 Reaction Kinetics 53 3.1.3 Phase Equilibria and Transport Phenomena 55 3.2 Ammonia Synthesis Process 55 3.2.1 Basics and Principles 56 3.2.2 History of the Ammonia Process 57 3.2.3 Development of Process and Pressure 58 V3.2.4 Special Aspects 63 3.3 Urea Process 64 3.3.1 Basics and Principles 65 3.3.2 History of Urea Process 67 3.3.3 Integration of Ammonia and Urea Processes 71 3.3.4 Special Construction Materials 71 3.4 General Aspects of HP Equipment 72 3.4.1 Multilayered Vessels 73 3.4.2 Recommendations to Vessel Design 73 3.4.3 Gaskets and Bolting 74 References 75 4 Low-Density Polyethylene High-Pressure Process 77 Dieter Littmann, Giulia Mei, Diego Mauricio Castaneda-Zuniga, Christian-Ulrich Schmidt, and Gerd Mannebach 4.1 Introduction 77 4.1.1 Historical Background 77 4.1.2 Properties and Markets 77 4.1.3 Polyethylene High-Pressure Processes 78 4.1.4 Latest Developments 78 4.2 Reaction Kinetics and Thermodynamics 78 4.2.1 Initiation 79 4.2.2 Propagation 79 4.2.3 Chain Transfer 80 4.2.4 Termination 81 4.2.5 Reaction Kinetics 81 4.3 Process 82 4.3.1 General Process Description 82 4.3.2 Autoclave Reactor 84 4.3.3 Tubular Reactor 85 4.3.4 Safety 88 4.4 Products and Properties 89 4.4.1 Blown Film 89 4.4.2 Extrusion Coating 90 4.4.3 Injection Molding 90 4.4.4 Wire and Cable 90 4.4.5 Blow Molding 90 4.4.6 Copolymers 91 4.5 Simulation Tools and Advanced Process Control 91 4.5.1 Introduction 91 4.5.2 Off-Line Applications 91 4.5.2.1 Flow Sheet Simulations 91 4.5.2.2 Steady-State Simulation of the Tubular Reactor 92 4.5.2.3 Dynamic Simulation of the Process 92 4.5.3 Online Application 93 VI Contents4.5.3.1 Soft Sensors 93 4.5.3.2 Advanced Process Control 94 References 96 5 High-Pressure Homogenization for the Production of Emulsions 97 Heike P. Schuchmann, Née Karbstein, Lena L. Hecht, Marion Gedrat, and Karsten Köhler 5.1 Motivation: Why High-Pressure Homogenization for Emulsification Processes? 97 5.2 Equipment: High-Pressure Homogenizers 98 5.2.1 Principal Design 98 5.2.2 Disruption Systems for High-Pressure Homogenization 98 5.2.2.1 Valves 98 5.2.2.2 Orifices and Nozzles 99 5.2.3 Flow Conditions 100 5.2.3.1 Flow Conditions in the Disruption System 100 5.2.3.2 Effect of Flow Conditions in Homogenization Valves on Emulsion Droplets 101 5.2.4 Simultaneous Emulsification and Mixing (SEM) Systems 101 5.3 Processes: Emulsification and Process Functions 103 5.3.1 Droplet Disruption in High-Pressure Valves 103 5.3.2 Droplet Coalescence in Homogenization Valves 104 5.3.3 Droplet Agglomeration in Homogenization Valves 107 5.4 Homogenization Processes Using SEM-Type Valves 107 5.4.1 Dairy Processes 107 5.4.2 Pickering Emulsions 109 5.4.3 Melt Homogenization 111 5.4.4 Emulsion Droplets as Templates for Hybrid (Core–Shell) Nanoparticle Production 112 5.4.5 Submicron Emulsion Droplets as Nanoreactors 114 5.4.6 Nanoparticle Deagglomeration and Formulation of Nanoporous Carriers for Bioactives 116 5.5 Summary and Outlook 117 References 118 6 Power Plant Processes: High-Pressure–High-Temperature Plants 123 Alfons Kather and Christian Mehrkens 6.1 Introduction 123 6.2 Coal-Fired Steam Power Plants 125 6.2.1 Thermodynamics and Power Plant Efficiency 125 6.2.2 Configuration of Modern Steam Power Plants 127 6.3 Steam Generator 130 6.3.1 Steam Generator Design 130 6.3.2 Membrane Wall 134 6.3.3 Final Superheater Heating Surface 135 Contents VII6.3.4 Final Superheater Outlet Header and Live Steam Piping 136 6.4 High-Pressure Steam Turbines 138 6.4.1 Configuration of Modern Steam Turbines 138 6.4.2 Design Features of High-Pressure Steam Turbines 139 6.5 Summary and Outlook 142 References 142 7 High-Pressure Application in Enhanced Crude Oil Recovery 145 Philip T. Jaeger, Mohammed B. Alotaibi, and Hisham A. Nasr-El-Din 7.1 Introduction 145 7.1.1 Principal Phenomena in Oil and Gas Reservoirs 145 7.1.2 Reservoir Conditions 145 7.2 Fundamentals 147 7.2.1 Miscibility at Elevated Pressures 147 7.2.2 Physical Chemical Properties of Reservoir Systems at Elevated Pressures 148 7.2.2.1 Density 148 7.2.2.2 Rheology 150 7.2.2.3 Interfacial Tension 151 7.2.2.4 Wetting 151 7.2.2.5 Diffusivity 153 7.2.2.6 Permeability 154 7.3 Enhanced Oil Recovery 155 7.3.1 Water Flooding 157 7.3.2 Chemical Injection 158 7.3.3 Thermal Recovery 158 7.3.4 Gas Injection 159 7.3.5 Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage (CCS) in EOR 160 7.3.6 Combustion 160 7.4 Oil Reservoir Stimulation 161 7.5 Heavy Oil Recovery 161 7.6 Hydrates in Oil Recovery 162 7.7 Equipment 163 7.7.1 Pumps 163 7.7.2 Pipes 164 7.7.3 Seals 164 7.7.4 Separators 165 References 166 8 Supercritical Processes 169 Rudolf Eggers and Eduard Lack 8.1 Introduction 169 8.2 Processing of Solid Material 172 8.2.1 Isobaric Process 174 VIII Contents8.2.2 Single or Cascade Operation with Multistep Separation 174 8.2.3 Cascade Operation and Multistep Separation 175 8.2.4 Extractable Substances 175 8.2.4.1 Selective Extraction 176 8.2.4.2 Total Extraction 176 8.2.5 Pretreatment of Raw Materials 176 8.2.6 Design Criteria 177 8.2.7 Design with the Use of Basket 178 8.2.8 Thermodynamic Conditions 179 8.2.9 Mass Transfer 179 8.2.10 Hydrodynamics 182 8.2.11 Energy Optimization 182 8.2.12 Pump Process 182 8.2.13 Compressor Process 183 8.2.14 Some Applications of Supercritical Extraction of Solids 184 8.2.14.1 Decaffeination of Green Coffee Beans 184 8.2.14.2 Production of Hops Extract 184 8.2.14.3 Extraction of Spices and Herbs 186 8.2.14.4 Extraction of Essential Oils 186 8.2.14.5 Production of Natural Antioxidants 188 8.2.14.6 Production of High-Value Fatty Oils 189 8.2.14.7 Extraction of c-Linolenic Acid 189 8.2.14.8 Cleaning and Decontamination of Cereals Like Rice 189 8.2.14.9 Impregnation of Wood and Polymers 190 8.2.14.10 Cleaning of Cork 193 8.2.14.11 Economics – Especially Investment Cost for Multipurpose Plants 193 8.3 Processing of Liquids 194 8.4 Future Trends 202 8.4.1 Drying of Aerogels 202 8.4.2 Treating of Microorganisms 203 8.4.3 Use of Supercritical Fluids for the Generation of Renewable Energy 204 8.4.4 Gas-Assisted High-Pressure Processes 205 References 206 9 Impact of High-Pressure on Enzymes 211 Leszek Kulisiewicz, Andreas Wierschem, Cornelia Rauh, and Antonio Delgado 9.1 Introduction 211 9.2 Influence of Pressure on Biomatter 212 9.3 Influence of Pressure on the Kinetics of Enzyme Inactivation 215 9.4 Technological Aspects 218 9.5 Summary 226 References 227 Contents IX10 High Pressure in Renewable Energy Processes 235 Nicolaus Dahmen and Andrea Kruse 10.1 Introduction 235 10.2 Thermochemical Processes 236 10.2.1 Pyrolysis 237 10.2.2 Liquefaction 238 10.2.3 Gasification 240 10.2.3.1 Fixed Bed Gasifier 242 10.2.3.2 Fluidized Bed Gasifiers 243 10.2.3.3 Entrained Flow Gasifiers 244 10.3 Hydrothermal Processes 248 10.3.1 Hydrothermal Carbonization 250 10.3.2 Hydrothermal Liquefaction 251 10.3.3 Hydrothermal Gasification 253 10.3.3.1 Catalytic Hydrothermal Gasification 253 10.3.3.2 Supercritical Hydrothermal Gasification 254 References 256 11 Manufacturing Processes 257 Andrzej Karpinski and Rolf Wink 11.1 Autofrettage: A High-Pressure Process to Improve Fatigue Lifetime 260 11.2 Waterjet Cutting Technology 265 11.2.1 Generation of Waterjets 265 11.2.2 Cutting Process and Parameters 267 11.2.3 High-Pressure Pumps 269 11.2.4 Waterjet Cutting with 6000 bar 272 11.2.5 Cutting Devices 273 11.2.6 New Trends in the Waterjet Cutting 276 11.2.6.1 Abrasive Water Suspension Jet 276 11.2.6.2 Microcutting 276 11.2.6.3 Medical Applications 277 References 278 Part Three Process Equipment and Safety 283 12 High-Pressure Components 285 Waldemar Hiller and Matthias Zeiger 12.1 Materials for High-Pressure Components 285 12.1.1 Steel Selection Criteria 286 12.1.2 High-Strength Low-Alloy Steel 287 12.1.3 Weldable Fine-Grain and High-Temperature Structural Steels 287 12.1.4 High-Strength High-Alloy Steels 287 12.1.5 Austenitic Stainless Steels 288 X Contents12.1.6 Austenitic–Ferritic Duplex Steels 288 12.1.7 Chromium–Molybdenum Hydrogen-Resistant Steels 288 12.1.8 Fatigue and Fracture Properties of High-Strength Steels 289 12.2 Pressure Vessels 290 12.2.1 Leak Before Burst 292 12.2.2 Welded Pressure Vessels 292 12.2.3 Nonwelded Pressure Vessels 294 12.2.4 Prestressing Techniques 298 12.2.5 Sealing Systems 300 12.3 Heat Exchangers 301 12.4 Valves 303 12.5 Piping 304 References 309 13 High-Pressure Pumps and Compressors 311 Eberhard Schluecker 13.1 Selection of Machinery 311 13.2 Influence of the Fluid on Selection and Design of the Machinery 313 13.3 Design Standards for High-Pressure Machines 314 13.4 Materials and Materials Testing 316 13.5 High-Pressure Centrifugal Pumps and High-Pressure Turbocompressors 317 13.6 Rotating Positive Displacement Machines 319 13.6.1 Discharge Rate 319 13.6.2 Gear Pumps 320 13.6.3 Screw Pumps 321 13.6.4 Progressing Cavity Pump 323 13.7 Reciprocating Positive Displacement Machines 323 13.7.1 Drive Technology for Reciprocating Positive Displacement Machines 324 13.7.2 Flow Behavior of Reciprocating Positive Displacement Machines 325 13.7.3 Pulsation Damping 327 13.7.4 Design Versions 328 13.7.4.1 Vertical Pump Head for 70 MPa 328 13.7.4.2 Horizontal Pump Head with Y-Piece for 300 MPa 329 13.7.4.3 Diaphragm Pump Heads 329 13.7.4.4 Piston Compressor for 30 MPa at the Maximum 330 13.7.4.5 Compressor for 300 MPa 332 13.7.4.6 Piston Compressor for 1400 MPa 333 References 334 14 High-Pressure Measuring Devices and Test Equipment 335 Arne Pietsch 14.1 Introduction 335 14.2 Process Data Measuring – Online 336 Contents XI14.2.1 Sensor Choice and Installation 337 14.2.2 Pressure and Differential Pressure 338 14.2.3 Temperature 341 14.2.4 Flow 343 14.2.5 Fluid Level 350 14.2.6 Density 351 14.2.7 Viscosity 351 14.2.8 Concentration – Solute in High-Pressure Gases and Fluids 352 14.2.9 Concentration – Gas Traces Dissolved in Liquids 358 14.3 Lab Determination – Additional Offline Test Equipment 359 14.3.1 Phase Equilibrium 359 14.3.2 Magnetic Sorption Balance 362 14.3.3 Interfacial Tension and Wetting 362 14.3.4 Gas Hydrates 363 14.3.5 Other Properties Online 364 14.4 Safety Aspects 364 14.5 Future 366 References 367 15 Sizing of High-Pressure Safety Valves for Gas Service 369 Jürgen Schmidt 15.1 Standard Valve Sizing Procedure 369 15.2 Limits of the Standard Valve Sizing Procedure 371 15.3 Development of a Sizing Method for Real Gas Applications 372 15.3.1 Equation of State and Real Gas Factor 375 15.3.2 Isentropic Exponent 378 15.3.3 Critical Pressure Ratio 379 15.4 Sizing of Safety Valves for Real Gas Flow 380 15.5 Summary 382 Appendix 15.A Calculation of Sizing Coefficient According to EN-ISO 4126-1 and a Real Gas Nozzle Flow Model 383 15.A.1 Inlet Stagnation Conditions 383 15.A.2 Property Data and Coefficients for Ethylene 383 15.A.3 Calculation of Flow Coefficient According to EN-ISO 4126-1 384 15.A.4 Calculation of Flow Coefficient Accounting for Real Gas Effects 385 15.A.5 Approximation of Mass Flux by an Analytical Method (Averaging Method) 386 Appendix 15.B List of Symbols 387 Subscripts 388 References 389 Appendix: International Codes and Standards for High-Pressure Vessels 391 Index 397 Index a absorption 19, 35, 128, 173, 174, 195, 206, 327 adiabatic nozzle 373 advanced process control (APC) 94, 95 – MFI and MFR trend 95 – utility 95 aerogels, supercritical drying 202, 203 – process, flow sheet 203 ammonia synthesis process 55 – ammonia content in equilibrium 57 – basics and principles 56 – chemical and physical hydrogen attack 64 – development, of process and pressure 58–63 – disadvantage of turbo compressors 63 – history, ammonia process 3–6, 57, 58 – material selection 63 – metal dusting 63, 64 – nitriding 64 – stress corrosion cracking 64 – world ammonia production 56 angle control valve 304 anthracite 125 antisolvent 174 Archimedes number 34 Austenitic–ferritic duplex steels 288 autoclave reactor 84–85 – safety requirements 88–89 autofrettage 5, 259, 260, 262, 264, 273, 298, 299, 314, 317 – to improve fatigue lifetime 260–264 b Bauschinger effect 298 benzaldehyde 77 binary diffusion coefficient 22, 28 biodiesel 235 bioethanol 235 biogas 235 biogenic waste 236 biomass 235, 236 – fuel conversion, technologies 236 – hydrothermal conversion 236–237 biomatter, influence of pressure 212–215 bolted cover 296 Bourdon gauge 339 c Cahn–Hillliard theory 14 capillary pressure 15, 16 carbonates 146 carbon capture storage technology (CCS) 30, 123 carbon dioxide, as miscible fluid 148 Carnots efficiency 127 cellulose, hydrothermal decomposition 254 centrifugal pumps 311 chemical equilibrium 51, 55, 212 chemical polymerization 77 cinematic viscosity 34, 35 coal-fired steam power plant 123, 125 – evolution of steam parameters 124 – net efficiency 124 – power plant efficiency 125–127 – thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle 126 – thermodynamics 125–127 coal for power generation 123 CO2 emissions 123 cold bending process 307 cold pasteurization 211 combustion 5, 6, 20, 127, 156, 160, 246, 247, 367 compression shock 370 compressors 3, 6, 68, 82, 155, 184, 260, 311 – centrifugal 63 – diaphragm 332 j397 Industrial High Pressure Applications: Processes, Equipment and Safety, First Edition. Edited by Rudolf Eggers. 2012 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Published 2012 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.– influence of fluid on selection and design 313, 314 – piston-type 63, 323, 330 – screw 319, 322 – turbo 63, 314 condensation processes 43–45 – average heat transfer coefficient 44 – deviation of real velocity profile 44 – dispatching of condensate film 45 – enhancement factor 45 – impact of high pressures on 45 – in inert gases 45 – shear stress, evaluation of 44, 45 conical pipe connection 307 core–shell nanoparticles (CSN) 112, 113 corrosion 64, 71, 72, 111, 136, 191, 287, 288, 294, 298, 340, 342, 358 critical heat flux qmax 38 cutting devices 273–275 d dairy processes 107–109 density profile of CO2 13, 21 diffusion coefficients 22, 35 – calculation of 36 – of CO2 in oil 35 double pipe heat exchanger 302 drag coefficients, of droplets in high-pressure atmosphere 20 droplet – agglomeration 107 – coalescence 104–107 – disruption 103, 104 e elastic stress 291 elastomer O-rings 300 emulsification, and process functions 103–107 – droplet disruption 103, 104 – homogenization valves – – droplet agglomeration in 107 – – droplet coalescence in 104–107 enhanced oil recovery (EOR) 148, 150, 155–157, 162 – carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) in 160 – chemical injection 158 – gas injection 159, 160 – thermal recovery 158, 159 – water flooding 157, 158 enthalpy 17, 22, 125 entropies 127 enzyme activity 212, 215, 216, 222, 224 enzyme inactivation kinetics, influence of pressure 215–218 – adiabatic process 219 – Arrhenius equation 217 – biphasic/multiphasic behavior 216, 217 – comparison of temperature fields 221 – down-flow velocity 219 – Eyring equation 217 – factors 218 – first-order kinetics 216, 222 – heterogeneous temperature field in autoclave 221 – at higher temperatures 223 – industrial inactivation 219 – inhomogeneous inactivation 225 – lipoxygenase (LOX), activity of 223 – particle tracks of enzymes 224 – polyphenoloxidase (PPO), activity of 223 – size of autoclaves, significant effect on 224 – technological aspects 218–226 – temperature stratification in autoclave 222 – thermal heterogeneities – – effect of packaging on 225 – – quality indicators, need of 226 EOR. See enhanced oil recovery (EOR) ethylene – approximation equations 379 – coefficients for 383 – compression 77 – copolymers 82 – decomposition 88 – hydrate 363 – isentropic exponent 379 – polymerization 79 – real gas factor 377 – total ethylene flow 86 evaporation process 17, 37–43 – burn out point 38 – convective boiling 40 – critical heat flux 39 – – dependent on 43 – dry out point 40 – film boiling (upflow of water in a tube) 42 – forced convection boiling 40 – heat transfer – – in case of flow boiling 38 – – regime of nucleate boiling 39 – limits of validity 42 – nucleation regime 38 – qualitative course of boiling curve 38 – regime of nucleate boiling 41 398j Indexf fi lm thickness 18 – laminar 18 – turbulent 18, 19 film velocity 18, 19 flange pressure 370 flow coefficient calculation 384 fluid dynamic critical pressure 379, 384, 386 fluid saturation in reservoir rocks 145 forced convective mass transport 35 forged vessels 294 forgings 294 fossil fuels 123 free convective transfer 30, 35, 37 – heat and mass transfer, general equation 24 – at high pressures in CO2 and N2 34 frettage 298 Froude number 197, 198 g gas-assisted high-pressure extraction 205, 206 – gas-assisted pressing of oilseed 205 gas, caloric and thermal properties 372, 373 gas extraction effect, industrial application 169 gas hydrates 363 gasification 235, 240–242 – entrained flow gasifiers 244–248 – fixed bed gasifier 242, 243 – fluidized bed gasifiers 243, 244 gasket 295 geometries 26 Gibbs energy 53 graphite 303 Grashof number 23, 25, 30, 34 Grayloc clamped pipe connection 306 h Haber–Bosch process 55, 63 Hagen-Poiseuille equation 320 heat capacity 26 heat conductivity 21 heat exchangers – double pipe 302 – high-pressure 302, 303 – vessels/piping elements 301 heat flux 37–40, 42 heat transfer – coefficients, for liquid flow 30 – correlations applicable for high-pressure processes 31, 32 – enhancement 29 – in near-critical pressure 30 heavy oil recovery 161, 162 high-pressure bends, fabrication 307 high-pressure centrifugal pumps 317–319 high-pressure components 285 – austenitic–ferritic duplex steels 288 – austenitic stainless steels 288 – chromium–molybdenum hydrogenresistant steels 288, 289 – heat exchangers 301–303 – high-strength high-alloy steels 287, 288 – high-strength low-alloy steel 287 – high-strength steels – – fatigue and fracture properties 289 – materials 285 – piping 304–309 – pressure vessels 290–301 – – leak before burst 292 – – nonwelded pressure vessels 294–298 – – prestressing techniques 298–300 – – sealing systems 300, 301 – – welded pressure vessels 292–294 – steel selection criteria 286 – steel selection guide 286 – valves 303–304 – weldable fine-grain/high-temperature structural steels 287 high-pressure (HP) equipment 72, 163 – bolting 74 – design standards 314–316 – flexible tube, design 164 – gaskets 74 – influence of fluid – – on selection and design 313, 314 – materials testing 316, 317 – multilayered/multiwall vessels 73 – – external frame-supported end closures 297 – – externally clamped end closure 296 – pipes 164 – pumps 163 – seals 164–165 – selection of materials for 316, 317 – separators 165–166 – vessel design, recommendations 73, 74 – – external frame-supported end closures 297 – – externally clamped end closure 296 high-pressure fuel injection 6 high-pressure–high-temperature plants 123 high-pressure homogenizers (HPHs) 97 – design 98 – disruption systems 98 – – nozzles 99, 100 Indexj399– – orifices 99, 100 – – valves 98, 99 – flow conditions 100 – – in disruption system 100, 101 – – homogenization valves on emulsion droplets, effect on 101 – – simultaneous emulsification and mixing (SEM) system 101, 102 high-pressure machines. See high-pressure (HP) equipment high-pressure phase equilibrium 8 – data collection 10 – experimental methods 10 – measuring devices 10–12 – software 10 – thermodynamic aspects 9 high-pressure processes – milestones 3–5 – realization 285 – working pressures 5 high-pressure pumps 3, 269–272, 311 – influence of fluid on selection and design 313, 314 high-pressure safety valves sizing – real gas applications – – critical pressure ratio 379, 380 – – equation of state 375–378 – – isentropic exponent 378, 379 – – real gas flow, safety valves sizing 380–382 – – sizing method, development 372–375 – standard valve sizing procedure 369–371 – – limits of 371, 372 high-pressure steam turbines 138 – design features 139–142 – longitudinal section of 140 – modern steam turbines, configuration 138, 139 – three-dimensional view 140 high-pressure turbocompressors 317–319 high-pressure vessels 4, 5, 30, 170, 200, 202, 288, 290, 297, 299, 362 – advantages 73 – instrumentation of 336 highstrength low-alloy (HSLA) steel 287, 288 homogenization processes, using SEM-type valves 107 – dairy processes 107–109 – emulsion droplets as templates 112–114 – formulation of nanoporous carriers for bioactives 116, 117 – melt homogenization 111, 112 – nanoparticle deagglomeration 116, 117 – pickering emulsions 109–111 – submicron emulsion droplets as nanoreactors 114–116 homogenization valves – droplet agglomeration in 107 – droplet coalescence in 104–107 hot bending processes 309 HPHs. See high-pressure homogenizers (HPHs) HTC. See hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) hydrates in oil recovery 162, 163 – phase diagram 163 hydraulic valve 305 hydroforming 257, 258 hydrostatic pressures 15 hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) 248–250 – char and coke obtained after 251 hydrothermal gasification 253 – catalytic 253 – supercritical 254–256 hydrothermal liquefaction 251–252 hydrothermal processes 235, 248–250 hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) 251 i ideal/real gases, property data 374 interfaces in high-pressure processes 12 interfacial tension 15, 16, 17, 362, 363 – principle of measurement 363 – of system CO2–H2O 15 internal thread end closure 295 isentropic coefficient for ideal gases 385 isentropic exponent 370, 378, 379 isostatic pressing 258, 259 j Joule–Thomson effect 372, 373 k Kelvin equation 16, 17 l law of chemical affinity 51 law of mass action 51, 52 LDPE. See low-density polyethylene (LDPE) leak before burst (LBB) 292 le Chatelier–Braun principle 52 lens ring gasket 300 lens ring seal 300 lignin 251 lignite 125 linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) 78 lipoxygenase (LOX) 223 liquefaction 5, 21, 238–240, 248, 343 – hydrothermal 250 400j Indexliquid natural gas (LNG) 6 liquids processing, with supercritical fluids 194 LLDPE. See linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) low-density polyethylene (LDPE) 77 – applications 89 – – blow molding 90, 91 – – in blown film 89, 90 – – copolymers 91 – – extrusion coating 90 – – injection molding 90 – – wire and cable 90 – chain transfer 80–81 – free radical polymerization process for 78 – high-pressure process – – historical background 77 – – latest developments 78 – – polyethylene high-pressure processes 78 – – polyethylene resin 77 – – reaction kinetics and thermodynamics 78–81 – homopolymer resins 89 – – applications 89–91 – initiation 79 – markets 77 – overall process description 82–84 – – flow sheet, industrial process 82 – – steps/process units 82 – plant – – off-line applications 91–93 – – online application 93–95 – – training simulator image for 93 – propagation 79–80 – properties 77 – reaction – – kinetics 56, 78–81 – – steps 78 – reactor (See autoclave reactor; tubular reactor) – termination 81 – thermodynamics 78–81 lower heating value (LHV) 123 Lurgi multipurpose gasification (MPG) technology 248 m Mach number 372 magnetic coupled sorption balances 362 – principle 362 mass flow rate 373 mass flux approximation 386 mass transfer 20 – correlations relevant for free and forced convection 33 material properties 20, 21 melt homogenization 111–112 MFR soft sensors 94 microorganisms, treatment of 203 – action of CO2 on microorganisms 204 – hydrostatic high-pressure process 203, 204 minimum miscibility pressure (MMP) 147 – determination, methods for 147 – efficiency 148 – equipment 148 miscibility at elevated pressures 147–148 molecule distances 8 n near-critical cinematic viscosity data 26 near-critical dynamic viscosity data 25 near-critical heat conductivities 24 nonpseudocritical pressure range, for turbulent flow 28 nozzle flow model 369, 370 nozzle throat 373, 375, 387 – pressure 375 Nusselt number 24, 30 o off-line applications 91 – dynamic simulation of process 92, 93 – flow sheet simulations 91, 92 – steady-state simulation of tubular reactor 92 Ohnesorge number 19 oil reservoir stimulation 161 online application 93 – advanced process control 94, 95 – soft sensors 93–94 online measurements 336 – density determination 351, 355 – differential pressure measurements 338–340 – flow quantification 343–350 – – Coriolis-type flow sensor 350, 352 – – HP flow detection sensors 344–349 – fluid level detection 350, 351, 353 – – gamma densitometer 353 – – using load cell 353 – gas traces dissolved in liquids 358, 359 – high-pressure level gauges for 354 – parameters 337 – pressure measurements 338–340 – – sensors selection 338, 340 – safety aspects 364–366 – sensor choice and installation 337 – – checklist 337 Indexj401– solute concentration measurements 352, 358 – temperature detection 341 – – industrial T-sensor installation 342 – – mounting methods of temperature sensors 342 – – rating of HP temperature sensors 343 – – resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) 341 – – seal 342 – – thermocouples for HP temperature measurement 343 – viscosity determination 351, 356, 357 original oil in place (OOIP) 146, 156, 157 p particle-stabilized emulsions (PSE) 109 PCSAFT equation 9 PE. See phase equilibrium (PE) Peng-Robinson equations 376 petaval gauges 335 petroleum – factors influencing migration 146 – reservoir 145 phase equilibrium (PE) 55, 359 – analytical – – dynamic measurement up to 100 MPa 361 – – measurement column with floating piston 361 – – measurement stirred vessel. 360 – principles for measurement with one fluid 359 phase inversion temperature (PIT) method 97 pickering emulsions 109–111 piezoelectric effect 335 pipe connection, with lens ring gasket 306 piping system 304–309 plate layered vessels – disadvantages 294 – limitations 294 plug flow reactor (PFR) 85 polyethylene high-pressure processes 78 polymer properties 77 poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA) 113 polyphenoloxidase (PPO) 223 power generation 123 Prandtl numbers 25, 28, 30 – for CO2 28 pressure vessels – expansion energy 293 – external frame-supported end closures 297 – externally clamped end closure 296 – fabrication 292 pressure–volume–temperature (PVT) test 147 prestressing techniques 299 propylene (P) 164 pseudocritical temperature 21 pyrolysis 235, 237, 238 q quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) 363 r reaction kinetics 53–55 real gas behavior 382 real gas factor 27, 370, 374, 377, 378 real gas nozzle flow model, sizing coefficient 382, 383 – EN-ISO 4126-7, flow coefficient 384 – ethylene, property data/coefficients 383, 384 – flow coefficient 385–386 – inlet stagnation conditions 383 – mass flux by analytical method 386, 387 reciprocating positive displacement machines 323, 324 – design versions 328 – diaphragm pump heads 329, 330 – drive technology 324, 325 – flow behavior 325–327 – high-pressure piston pump heads 329 – horizontal pump head 329 – piston compressors 330–333 – pulsation damping 327, 328 – vertical pump head 328, 329 Redlich–Kwong equation of state 376 reservoirs – conditions 145–147 – hydrocarbon 146 – petroleum 145 – PVT tests for reservoir fluid 147 reservoir systems, at elevated pressures – physical chemical properties 148 – – density 148–150 – – diffusivity 153, 154 – – interfacial tension 151 – – permeability 154, 155 – – rheology 150, 151 – – wetting 151–153 Reynolds number 19, 25, 30, 372 rising bubble apparatus (RBA) 147 rotating positive displacement machines 319 – discharge rate 319, 320 – gear pumps 320, 321 – progressing cavity pump 323 – screw pumps 321–323 402j Indexrotor–stator machine (RSM) 106 rupture disk assembly 305 s safety instrumentation, of clamp-closure HP vessel 366 safety valves 304 – contour of flow 371 – narrowest flow cross section of 384 – sizing criteria 369 sandstones 146 Schmidt number 25 sealing element 300 sealing systems 300, 301 seat cross-sectional area of a safety valve Aseat 369 self-diffusion coefficient 36 SEM valves 108, 109 – geometric modification 110 – operational modes for production of o/w emulsions in 102 sensors 335, 338 – choice for high-pressure applications 337 – – checklist 337 – for differential pressure 339 – industrial specialty sensors 364 – safety aspects 364–366 shear stress 18 Sherwood number 24 simulation tools 91 sizing coefficient – for ethylene 381 – real gas service, nozzle 380 – vs. reduced inlet stagnation pressure 381 sludge-to-oil reactor system (STORS) 252 Soave–Redlich–Kwong equations 376, 380, 383 solid hydrocarbon 162 solids–like polymers 35 Spray formation 19 static wetting angle 17 steam-assisted gravity drainage (ES-SAGD) 160 steam generator 130 – cross-sectional view 131 – design 130–133 – development of materials used in 133, 134 – final superheater heating surface 135, 136 – final superheater outlet header – – and live steam piping 136–138 – HP system 131 – membrane wall 134, 135 – tube configuration 132 steam power plants – configuration 127–129 steel, strength-toughness 289 Stokes–Einstein equation 35 supercritical extraction of solids, applications of 184 – cleaning and decontamination of cereals like rice 189, 190 – cleaning of cork 193 – decaffeination of green coffee beans 184 – economics 193, 194 – extraction of essential oils 186, 188 – extraction of c-linolenic acid 189 – extraction of spices and herbs 186, 187 – impregnation of wood and polymers 190–192 – production – – high-value fatty oils 189 – – hops extract 184, 185 – – natural antioxidants 188 – yield in carnosolic acid 188 supercritical fluids 169 – critical conditions 170 – deacidification of vegetable oil, pilot plant 196 – efficiency, in high-pressure separation process 198 – Froude number and Reynolds number of liquid phase 198 – for generation of renewable energy 204 – high-pressure column processes 195 – – designing 195 – high-pressure nozzle extraction 200 – high-pressure spray processes using 198, 199 – – advantages 198, 200 – hydrodynamic behavior of countercurrent flow 197 – – equation, prediction of flooding point 197 – interfacial tension at high pressures 198 – problem in calculating rate of mass transfer 197 – processing of liquids with 194–202 – thin film extraction (TFE) process 200 – – application 202 – – design of prototype pilot plant 200, 201 – – TFE pilot unit 201 – viscous materials 200 – – for continuous processing 201, 202 supercritical processing 169, 170 – classification of 171 – compressor process 183, 184 – design – – criteria 177 – – with use of basket 178, 179 Indexj403– energy optimization 182 – hydrodynamics 182 – mass transfer 179–182 – mass transfer kinetics 171 – phase equilibrium data 171 – pressure range 172 – pretreatment of raw materials 176, 177 – processing of solid material 172–174 – pump process 182, 183 – separation of dissolved substances 173 – – extractable substances 175 – – isobaric process 174 – – selective extraction 176 – – single/cascade operation 174, 175 – – total extraction 176 – solubility in supercritical CO2 173 – thermodynamic conditions 179 – typical trend of extraction lines 172 surface tension 14, 203 t tangential stress 290 tetrafluoroethylene (TFE) 164 TFEP (AFLAS) copolymer 164 thermal expansion coefficient 30, 34 thermodynamic critical point 381 thermodynamic critical pressure, gases 377 thermodynamics, second law 385 thermophysical data at high pressures, correlations for 27 transport – coefficients 21 – data 20, 21 – phenomena 55 – processes 20 tubular reactor 85–88, 86 – configurations – – multiple feed reactor 86 – – single ethylene feed/S-Reactor 86 – multiple cold ethylene feed points 86 – multiple feed tubular reactor – – temperature profile 87 – product properties, affected by 88 – safety requirements 88–89 – steady-state simulation of 92 turbocompressors 311 turbomachines 311, 313 – in multistage design 313 twister separator, design 165 u urea synthesis 64 – basics and principles 65–67 – history of urea process 67–71 – integration with ammonia processes 71 – material selection 71, 72 v vanishing interfacial tension (VIT) 147 vapor pressure 16, 17 vessel wall 295 viscosity 19, 22, 27, 30, 45, 101, 107, 112, 156, 159, 197, 221, 313, 320, 322, 349, 362 volumetric pumping behavior 312 von Mises criterion 291 w water alternating gas injection (WAG) 160 waterjet cutting technology 259, 260 – advantages 265 – with 6000 bar 272, 273 – cutting process, and parameters 267–269 – – abrasive, influence on cutting results 268 – – material surface after AIWJ cutting 269 – – successive phases of stock removal during 268 – generation of waterjets 265–267 – new trends 276 – – abrasive water suspension jet 276 – – medical applications 277, 278 – – microcutting 276, 277 Weber number 19 welded pressure vessels 293 – heating and cooling 294 – steels, economical importance 287 welding 73, 74, 134, 257, 287, 292, 294, 302, 304, 342 wetting angle – pressure dependence of 18 – solid surfaces 16 – water and oil on flat steel surface 16, 17 y Young equation 16, 17 Young–Laplace equation 15
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