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أخواني في الله أحضرت لكم كتاب High Vacuum Technique - Theory, Practice, Industrial Applications and Properties of Materials BY J . YAR WOOD M.SC., F. INST.P. Head of Department of Mathematics and Physics, The Polytechnic, Regent Street, W.l THIRD EDITION REPRINTED
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CONTENTS Chapter Page 1. The Production of High Vacua . The Mean Free Path - Vacuum Pumps - The Water-jet Pump - The Gaede Mechanical Rotary Pump - The Cenco-Hyvac Rotary Pump -The Kinney Pump - The Gas Ballast Pump - The Molecular Pump The Mercury Diffusion Pump - Freezing Traps - The Oil Diffusion Pump Pumping Systems Cut-offs- Leak Finding The Characteristics of Vacuum Pumps - The Construction of Vacuum Systems. 2. The Measurement of High Vacua . . . . The Discharge Tube The McLeod Gauge - The Vacustat - The Optical Bellows Manometer- The Pirani Gauge Ionization Gauges - Extension of the Low-pressure Range of the Ionization Gauge - The Ionization Gauge as a Pump - The Philips Ionization Manometer - The Alphatron Gauge The Thermocouple Gauge The Knudsen Gauge - The Viscosity Gauge - Leakfinding Methods using Vacuum Gauges. 3. The Measurement of Pumping Speed The Flow of Gas through a Tube - Definition of Pumping Speed - Constant Pressure Methods Constant Volume Method= Pressure-time Characteristics. 4. De-gassing and “ Gettering ” Low-temperature Baking De-gassing of Glass - De-gassing of Metals-Eddy-current Heating - “ Gettering ” - Drying Agents -Discharge Cleaning. 5. The Applications of High Vacua in Industry . Exhausting and Activating Radio Valves - Cathode-ray Tubes - Gas-filled Tubes The Photo-cell - The Deposition of Metal Films in vacuo The Evaporation Process The Sputtering Process. 6. The Properties of Materials Important in High Vacuum Technique . . . . . The Gases The Elements - The Vapour Pressures of Metals and Carbon at Various Temperatures The Properties and Uses of Substances Employed in High Vacuum Technique - Miscellaneous Tables. Bibliography Index . viiINDEX Beeswax and resin, 171 Bell, 42 Bellows manometer, 79 Beryllium, 172 -copper, 172 -nickel, 172 Blodgett, 156 Boiling points, of elements, 162 of gases, 161 of pump fluids, 27 Bombardment, electron, 88, 140, 155 ion, 124, 136, 154 Booster pumps, 36, 52, 55, 57 Borelius, 165, 166 Bowie, 90 Brass, 172 British Thomson Houston Co., Ltd., ABSORBED GAS, 123 Absorptivity factor, 27 Adsorbed gas, 123 Aero Research Ltd., 176 Air admittance valves, 68 Alexander, 20, 23, 44 Alpert, 70, 92, 95, 184 Alphatron gauge, 99 Aluminium, as a getter, 134 properties and uses of, 156, 168, 170 soldering of, 170 Aluminizing, 150 Annealing of glass, 181 Anode dissipation, 137 Apiezon greases, 41, 175 oils, 26, 55, 57, 117, 120 “ Q ” compound, 41, 59, 175 waxes, 41, 45, 59, 175 Aquadag, 174 Araldite, 176 Argon, properties of, 161 rate of sputtering in, 160 Asbestos, 124, 171 Aston, 74 Atomic weights, 162 Avery, 19 BACK-DIFFUSION, 24 Backhurst, 17 Backing pressure, 14, 17, 24, 39, 52, 55, 57 Backing pumps, 2 ; see Mechanical rotary pumps Back-streaming, 18, 20, 28, 67 Baffles for oil diffusion pumps, 26, 30 56, 67 Bakelite, 171 Bake-out clamp, 71 Ball and socket joints, 65 Barium, as a getter, 132 properties of, 156, 168, 169, 171 Barium oxide-strontium oxide cathode coating, 138, 171 Bayard, 92 Bearden, 31 107 Bronze, 173 Brown, 27 Buna rubbers, 192 Burch, 26 Buritz, 184 Byck, 32 CADMIUM, 156, 168, 173 Calcium, 173 as a getter, 134 chloride, 135 fluoride, 157 oxide, 135 Calibration of gauges, 78, 81, 89 Campbell, 83 Carbon, 168, 174 crucible for metal evaporation, 155 Carbon dioxide, 161 solid, 25, 120 Catalytic action of metals on oils, 29 Cathodes, activation of, 26 photoelectric, 148 thermionic, 139, 142 Cathode dark space, 74, 158, 164 Cathode potential drop, 164 Cathode-ray tubes, pumping of, 140 Cathode watts, 138 Caustic potash, 135 203INDEX Diffusion pumps - con Edwards, H. W., 29 Edwards, W. and Co., Etd., 36, 55 effect of fore-pressure on, 24, 47 fractionating type, 34, 52 Gaede, 16, 19 Henderson, 31 Hickman, 26, 34 Ho, 22 Kaye, 17 mercury, 12, 15, 52, 56 Metropolitan-Vickers, 35, 57 multi-nozzle patterns, 22, 30 National Research Corporation, 57 oil, 12, 26, 52, 55, 56, 57 performances of, 54, 55, 56, 57 steel jet in glass, 18 Thermal Syndicate Ltd., 24 “ umbrella ” type, 15 Vacuum Industrial Applications Ltd., 55 Volmer, 16 Witty, theory, 19 Zabel, 30 Discharge as pressure indicator, 73 cleaning, 136, 154 Displacement, free air, 48, 49, 50, 54 Distillation Products Inc., 27, 37, 47, 52, 55 Donal, 63 Douglas, 183, 184, 195 Dow Corning Corpn., 27, 42 Downing, 99, 117 Drying agents, 135 Dumond, 83, 85, 100 Dunkel, 201 Dunoyer, 189, 201 Dushman, 16, 37, 88, 92, 107, 117, 121, 168, 201 Cements, 175 Central Scientific Co., 26, 50 Ceramics, 177 Charcoal, absorption of gas by, 120, 174 Chrome-iron alloys, 182, 185 Chromium, 154, 156, 168 Cleaning of mercury, 187 of glass, 152, 184 Cloud, 192 Cold traps, see Freezing traps Colombium, 178 Compressed-air operated valves, 67 Condensable vapours, 8 Conductance, molecular, 109 chart for cylindrical tubes, 113 Conical joints, 41 Constantan, 178 Construction of vacuum systems, 57 Copley, 31 Copper, 29, 156, 162, 168, 178 alloys, 178 sulphate, 135 Crawford, 22 Creutz, 65 Critical pressures for gases, 161 temperatures for gases, 161 Crittenden, 158 Cut-offs, mercury, 42 Cut-off test, 43 DARK SPACE, 74, 158, 164 Davy, 201 Dayton, 121 De-gassing of glasses, 41, 123, 126 of metals, 123, 126 Delsasso, 65 Dennis, 28 Densities of elements, 162 of gases, 161 Deposition of metals, 26, 150 Diffusion of gases through metals, 165 Diffusion pumps, action of, 15, 18 Alexander, 20, 23, 24 Bearden, 31 characteristics of, 47, 48 Copley, Simpson, Tenney and Phipps, nozzle design, 31 Crawford, 22 Distillation Products Ltd., 52, 55 divergent nozzle pattern, 31 EAST, 79 Ebonite, 179 Eddy-current heating, 123, 128, 130, 139 Edwards, H. W„ 29 Edwards, W. and Co., Ltd., 3, 6, 9, 36, 42, 44, 48, 49, 50, 55, 61, 65, 67, 68, 69, 78, 81, 85, 105, 153, 176, 201 Ejector pumps, 36, 52, 54, 56 Electron tubes, manufacture of, 137 Elements, properties of, 162 Emission spectra of gases, 164 204I N D E X Gauges, vacuum - cont. Pirani, 81 thermocouple, 99 Vacustat, 78 viscosity, 102 Geiger counters, gas-filling of, 144 General Electric Co., Ltd., 102 General Engineering Co. (RadclifTe), Ltd., 7, 51 Geratebau-Anstalt-Balzers, 9 Getters, 123, 132, 139 Glass, 57, 179 Glass to metal seals, 58, 73, 182 Glyptal, 176 Gold, 156, 160, 168, 184 Graded glass seals, 58 Greases, vacuum, 175 Greenland, 157 Ground glass joints, 41 Giintherschulze, 160 HALOGEN LEAK DETECTOR, 105 Hass, 156, 198 Henderson, 31 Heraeus Co., 155 Hickey, 106 Hickman, 26, 34 Hill, 201 Ho, 22 Ho coefficient, 33, 121 Holweck, 14 Housekeeper joint, 62, 182 Howard, 116 Hughes, 191 Hunten, 191 Hydrogen, as a probe gas in leak-finding, 102 cleaning of metals, 128 diffusion through metals, 166 properties of, 161 rate of sputtering in, 160 Hydrogen-sensitive ionization gauge, Engel, von, 94 Espe, 128, 164, 20 Essig, 145 Estermann, 32 Excitation potentials, 61 Expansion coefficients of elements, 162 of other materials, 185, 189, 193, 196, 199 FAST, 135 Fernico, 179 Fick's diffusion law, 165 Flosdorf, 78 Fluorescence of glass, 74, 184 Fluorite, evaporation of, 157 Fore pressure, see Backing pressure Fore pumps, 12, 15 ; see also Backing pumps Found, 88 Fowler, 145 Fractionating pumps, see Diffusion pumps Freezing traps, 25, 120 GAEDE, 2, 3, 8, 12, 16, 17, 18, 27, 112 Gas-ballast pumps, 2, 8, 49 Gases, boiling points, 161 critical pressures, 161 critical temperatures, 161 densities, 161 diffusion of, 165 emission spectra, 164 excitation potentials, 161 ionization potentials, 161 mean free paths for, 1, 161, 164 viscosities, 161 Gas-filling methods, 142 Gaskets, 59, 62 Gauges, vacuum, Alphatron, 99 Bayard-AIpert, 92 bellows manometer, 79 discharge tube, 73 Dumond and Pickels, 83, 100 East and Kuhn, 79 ionization, 86 Knudsen, 100 leak-finding methods using, 102 McLeod, 77 Penning, 96 Philips, 96 103 INSERTING A SPECIMEN INTO VACUUM, 65 Interference filters, 156, 198 Ionic bombardment cleaning, 124, 136 Ionization gauge, 86 as a pump, 93 Bayard-AIpert, 92 calibration curve, 89 circuits for, 87 205INDEX Ionization gauge, control unit, 91 extension of low-pressure range of, 92 hydrogen-sensitive, 103 in leak-finding, 43, 102 in measuring limiting pressures, 120, 121 in measuring pumping speed, 115, 121 Morse and Bowie, 90 Philips, 96 Ridenour circuit, 90 triode type, 87 Ionization potentials, 161 Iron, 127, 156, 162, 168, 185 Martin, S. T„ 62 McLeod gauge, 12, 39, 45, 48, 77 combination with Pirani gauge, 86 in measuring limiting pressures, 46. 48, 119 in measuring pumping speed, 121 Mean free path, 1, 2, 19, 74, 123, 161, 164 Mechanical rotary pumps, 2 action of, 3 Cenco-Hyvac pattern, 2, 5 characteristics of, 45, 46, 49 commercial models, 49, 50, 54 Gaede pattern, 2, 3 gas-ballast type, 2, 8, 49 Kinney type, 2, 7 precautions in using, 4 Mellen, 99 Melting points of elements, 162 Mercury, 186 amalgams, 42 cleaning of, 187 switches, 186 vapour pressures of, 25, 186 Mercury diffusion pump, 15 ; see also Diffusion pumps JAECKEL, 8, 201 Jossem, 144 KAYE, 17, 201 Khotinsky cement, 42, 177 Knoll, 128, 164, 201 Knudsen, 100, 108 Knudsen gauge, 100 Dumond and Pickels, 100 in measuring pumping speed, 122 Kovar, 185 Kuhn, 79 Kuper, 103 Metals, atomic weights, 162 boiling points, 162 densities, 162 deposition in vacuo, 150 evaporation temperatures, 156 expansion coefficients, 162 melting points, 162 outgassing temperatures for, 127 resistivities, 162 specific heats, 162 thermal conductivities, 162 vapour pressures, 168 Metropolitan-Vickers Electrical Co., Ltd., 35, 45, 50, 57, 65, 91 Mica, 187 sealing to glass, 63 Mills, 119 Molecular diameters, I, 161 Molecular flow, 108 pressures, 108 Molecular pumps, 12, 14, 120 Molecular volumes of oils, 26 weights of oils, 26 Molybdenum, 127, 151, 156, 162, 168, LANGMUIR, 16, 19, 102 Latham, 28 Lead, 62, 156, 162, 168, 185 gaskets, 62, 185 Leak detection, methods using vacuum gauges, 43, 102 preliminary methods, 43 Leemans, 115 Leybold's Nachfolger, 8, 11, 12, 49 Lindblom, 165 Liquid air, 25 Lobb, 42 Lombard, 167 Longhurst, 191 Lusec, the, 105 MAGNESIUM, 134, 156, 163, 168, 186 chlorate, 135 Magnetic valves, 68 Manometer, mercury, 143 oil, 143 188 206INDEX Pulsometer Engineering Co., Ltd., 54 Pumping speed, calculation of required, 39 definition of, 2, 112 determination of, 108, 115 formulae, 113 precautions in measuring, 121 theoretical, 33 values for pumps, 3, 13, 17, 22, 32, 36, 45, 47, 49, 50, 52, 55, 56, 57 Pumping systems, 39 Pumps which require a fore-vacuum, Morse, 90 Movement of mechanism in vacuo, 64 Multi-head pumps, 137 NATIONAL RESEARCH CORPORATION, 9, 49, 57 Needle valves, 44, 118 Nelson, 103 Neoprene, 60, 192 Nichrome, 188 Nickel, 127, 156, 162, 168, 188 Nottingham, 92 O BRYAN, 155 Oil for diffusion pumps, 26, 27, 29 disadvantages of, 28 Oil-sealed union, 63 Oil stripper units, 9 Olsen, 158 O-ring gaskets, 41, 60, 63, 65 Outgassing temperatures for metals, 127 Oven for baking vacuum tubes, 124 Oxygen, diffusion through metals, 167 properties of, 161 PALLADIUM, 163, 167, 168, 189 Penning, 96 Pfund, 86 Philips gauge, 96 Philp, 192 Phipps, 31 Phosphorus, 189 , pentoxide, 8, 135, 190 • Photo-cells, 146 Picein wax, 42, 59, 63 Pickels, 83, 85, 100 Pirani gauge, 81 in measuring limiting pressure, 46, 48 in measuring pumping speed, 115 leak-finding with, 102 Plaster of Paris, 177 Platinum, 127, 156, 160, 163, 168, 182, 12 QUARTZ, see Silica " Q ” compound, 41, 59, 175 RADIO CORPORATION OE AMERICA, 103 Radio valves, pumping and activation of, 137 Ransley, 165 Reche, 130 Resistivities of elements, 162 Rhodium, 155, 163, 191 Ridenour, 90 Roberts, 20 Rotating pump systems, 137 Rough vacuum, engineers’ scale, 54 Rubber, 191 gaskets, 59, 63 synthetic, 192 Rubidium, 156, 163, 168, 193 SAUNDERS VALVE, 65 Schwarz, 94 Scott, 84 Sealing wax, 177 Self-purifying pump, 56 Shellac, 177 Shell Chemicals Ltd., 175 Shepherd, 135 Sherwood, 126 Silica, 24, 63, 126, 157, 193 Silica-gel, 3, 135, 194 Silicone greases, 41, 176 oils, 26, 27, 48, 55, 118 Silicon monoxide, 156, 194 Silver, 156, 162, 168, 194 chloride, 177 Simpson, 31 Smith, 158 Smithells, 165, 201 190 Poindexter, 191 Porcelain-glass seals, 63, 177 Potassium, 156, 163, 168, 191 Power, 28 Pressure-time characteristics of pumps, 46 207I N D E X Sodium, 150, 163, 168, 195 Soldering fluxes, 195 Soldering metal to glass, 62 Solders, 195 Solubilities of gases in water, 199 Spark oscillator for eddy-current heating, 128 Specific heats of elements, 162 of glass, 183 Speed, see Pumping speed Speed factor, 32 Speedivac pumps, 46, 126 Sprengel, 17 Sputtering, 158 Steam ejector pump, 37 Stcckelmacher, 91 Steel, 195 jet in glass pump, 18 “ Sticking ” vacuum, 78 Stokes Machine Co., 51 Stop-cocks, 41 Strong, 150, 152, 201 Strontium, 163, 168, 196 Stull, 168 Suck-back of oil, 4 Sullivan, 51 Sulphur, 197 Sulphuric acid, 135 Synthetic rubbers, 192 TANTALUM, 127, 134, 157, 163, 168, 197 carbide, 197 Taps, see Stop-cocks Technical Products Ltd., 41 Temperature coefficients of resistivities, 162 Tenney, 31 Tesla coil, 43, 58 Thermal conductivities of elements, Tombac, 172 Transmitting valves, pumping of, U Tungsten, 127, 134, 152, 163, 16 198 ULTIMATE VACUUM OR LIMITING PR. SURE, 4, 11, 14, 17, 49, 50, 52, 5<*, 56, 57 Ultra-high vacua, 69 VACUSTAT GAUGE, 78 Vacuum Industrial Applications Ltd., 27, 55, 65, 99 Vacuum locks, 65 Vacuum stoves, 126 Vacuum valves, 65 Vapour pressures, of barium oxide, 196 of carbon, 168 of common liquids, 200 of greases, 175 of mercury, 186 of metals, 168 of phosphorus, 190 of phosphorus pentoxide, 190 of strontium oxide, 196 of water, 199 Viscosities of gases, 161 Viscosity gauge, 102 Volmer diffusion pump, 16 WATER, PROPERTIES OF, 199 solubility of gases in, 199 Watcr-jct pumps, 2, 3 Watson, 74 Welch Scientific Co., 51 Westinghouse Research Laboratories, 95 White, 106 Wilner, 173 Wilson seal, 62 Winkelmann, 183 Witty, 19 Wood's metal, 195 Woonton, 191 162 Thermal Syndicate Ltd., 24 Thermionic cathodes, activation of, 26, 139 Thermocouple gauge, 12, 68, 99, 102 Thoriated tungsten, 197 Thorium, 163, 168, 197 Throat width in diffusion pump design, 33 Throughput, 109 Tin, 163, 168, 197 Titanium, 198 dioxide, 198 ZABEL, 30 Zinc, 156, 163, 168, 200 chloride, 135 oxychloride, 200 Zirconium, 134, 163, 168, 200 208
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