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أخوانى فى الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Resistance Welding Manual Revised Fourth Edition RWMA
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Contents Section 1 PROCESSES PREFACE iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS V Fundamentals Of ResistanceWelding 1-1 INTRODUCTION . 1.1 RESISTANCE WELDING PROCESSES . 1-1 RELATED PROCESSES . 1-3 FUNDAMENTALSOF THE RESISTANCEWELDING PROCESS . 1-3 APPLlCATiONS 1-8 ECONOMICS . 1-9 DESiGN PRINCIPLES 1-12 MATERIALS . 1-18 LIMITATIONS 1-18 Spot Welding 2-1 INTRODUCTlON . 2-1 FUNDAMENTALSOFTHE PROCESS 2-1 TYPESOFWELDS . 2-2 ELECTRODES 2-5 MATERIALS . 2-5 WELDQUALiTY . 2-7 IMPLEMENTATION . 2-8 ProjectionWeldlng 3-1 INTRODUCTION . 3-1 TYPESOF PROJECTIONS 3-3 GENERAL PRINCIPLES . 3-8 WELDQUALITY . 3-12 Seam Weldlng 4-1 INTRODUCTION . 4-1 FUNDAMENTALSOFTHE PROCESS 4-2 WELDQUALITY . 4-8 MATERIALS . 4-11 Flash And UpsetWelding 5-1 FUNDAMENTALSOFTHE PROCESS 5-1 APPLICATIONS 5-3 EQUIPMENT 5-3 WELDING PROCEDURES . 5-7 PROCESSVARIABLES . 5-11 WELDQUALITY . 5-13 TESTINGAND INSPECTION . 5-15 WELDINGOFSTEEL . 5-15 UPSETWELDiNG 5-18 vllContents Addltlonal Reslstance Welding Processes 6-1 CROSS WIRE WELDING 6-1 RESISTANCEBRAZING . 6-4 HOT RIVETING AND UPSETTING . 6-10 PERCUSSION WELDING 6-12 BUTSEAMWELDING ............................................................. 6-14 RESISTANCECUTTING . 6-16 Section 2 MATERIALS Low Carbon Steels 7-1 INTRODUCTION . 7-1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES . 7-1 SPOTWELDING . 7-3 PROJECTION WELDING 7-11 SEAMWELDING . 7-12 ROLLSPOTWELDS 7-13 MASHSEAMWELDS . 7-13 FLASHWELDING 7-13 UPSETWELDING 7-16 RESISTANCEWELDS IN SCALY STOCK . 7-17 Hlgh Carbon And Low Alloy Steels 8-1 INTRODUCTION . 8-1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES . 8-1 SPOTWELDING . 8-3 SEAMWELDING . 8-12 FLASHWELDING 8-12 HIGH STRENGTH LOW ALLOY STEEL (HSLA) 8-14 9-1 INTRODUCTION . 9-1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES . 9-1 SPOTWELDING . 9-5 PROJECTION WELDING 9-8 ROLLSPOT AND SEAM WELDING 9-8 FLASHWELDING 9-8 STAINLESS-CLADSTEEL . 9-9 Stalnless And Hlgh Alloy Steels Coated And Plated Steels 10-1 SPOTWELDING ................................................................... 10-1 PROJECTIONWELDING 10-5 SEAM WELDING . 10-5 FLASHWELDING 10-5 vlllContents Alumlnum And Alumlnum Alloys 11-1 INTRODUCTION . 11-1 MATERIAL PREPARATION . 11-3 SPOTWELDING . 11-5 QUALITYCONTROL 11-24 ELECTRODES 11-29 SEAM AND ROLLSPOTWELDING 11-30 PROJECTION WELDING 11-33 UPSETWELDING 11-33 FLASHWELDING 11-34 Magneslum And Magnesium Alloys 12-1 INTRODUCTION . 12-1 SPOTWELDING . 12-2 FLASHWELDING 12-3 Copper And Copper Base Alloys 13-1 INTRODUCTION . 13-1 ALLOYINGAGENTS 13-1 COPPER BASE ALLOYS 13-3 GENERALPRINCIPLES . 13-5 SPOTWELDING . 13-7 PROJECTION WELDING 13-10 SEAMWELDING . 13-10 FLASHWELDING 13-11 Nlckel And Nickel-BaseAlloys 14-1 INTRODUCTION . 14-1 SPOTWELDING . 14-6 PROJECTIONWELDING 14-15 CROSS WIREWELDING 14-15 SEAMWELDING . 14-16 FLASHWELDING 14-18 MiscellaneousAnd Dissimilar Metals 15-1 TITANIUM 15-1 COBALT BASE ALLOYS . 15-2 REFRACTORY METALS . 15-4 ZINC ANDZINC DIECASTINGS 15-4 LEAD AND LEAD ALLOYS ........................................................... 15-5 DISSIMILARMETALS . 15-5 IxContents Section 3 EQUIPMENT Machlnes 16-1 ~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~ INTRODUCTION . ROCKER ARM MACHINES BENCH MOUNTED WELDING MACHINES PRESS TYPE WELDING MACHINES SEAM WELDING MACHINES . FLASH AND UPSETWELDING MACHINES . MULTIPLE SPOT WELDING MACHINES PORTABLE GUN WELDING MACHINES ROBOTSYSTEMS INTEGRATION HIGH FREQUENCY WELDING . MISCELLANEOUS MACHINES . 16-1 16-2 16-4 16-5 16-6 16-8 16-11 16-13 16-1 5 16-16 16-1 7 Jigs. Fixtures And Tooling 17-1 INTRODUCTION . 17-1 WORKHOLDINGDEVICES 17-10 JIGS AND FIXTURES FOR GUN WELDING MACHINES . 17-12 HOPPER AND MAGAZINE FEEDS 17-13 SEAM WELDING FIXTURES . 17-15 FLASH AND UPSET WELDING MACHINE CLAMPING FIXURES 17-15 TYPESOFOPERATION . 17-16 BACKUPSAND LOCATORS . 17-17 ResistanceWelding Electrodes 18-1 INTRODUCTION . 18-1 ELECTRODE FUNCTIONS 18-1 ELECTRODE MATERIALS . 18-2 FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF ELECTRODE MATERIALS . 18-1 1 SPOTWELDING ELECTRODES 18-12 PROJECTION WELDING ELECTRODES . 18-24 SEAM WELDING ELECTRODES 18-25 UPSET AND FLASH WELDING ELECTRODES 18-26 PROPER ELECTRODE COOLING . 18-27 Weidina Transformers And Power Conversion EauiDment 19-1 INTRODUCTION . 19-1 ELECTRICALSYSTEM . 19-1 SINGLE-PHASERESISTANCEWELDING TRANSFORMERS . 19-4 FREQUENCY CONVERTER SYSTEM . 19-9 HIGH FREQUENCY DIRECT CURRENT WELDING POWER SUPPLIES 19-11 DIRECT-CURRENTPOWER CONVERSION EQUIPMENT . 19-11 XContents Welding Controls 20-1 INTRODUCTION . 20-1 CONTROL SYSTEMS . 20-1 CONTROLTECHNOLOGIES . 20-3 STANDARD NEMA CLASSIFICATIONS . 20-4 USERINTERFACE . 20-5 CONTACTORS 20-6 HEATCONTROL . 20-7 COMPENSATION AND FEEDBACK SYSTEMS 20-11 COOLING REQUIREMENTS . 20.14 Power Supply 21-I INTRODUCTION . 21-1 OUT-PLANT POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM 21-1 IN-PLANT POWERSUPPLY SYSTEM 21-7 Instrumentation 22-1 INTRODUCTION . 22-1 PROCESSVARIABLES . 22-2 EQUIPMENTAVAILABLE 22-5 Fluid Power Systems 23-1 INTRODUCTION . 23-1 FLUIDS 23-1 PRESSURE SUPPLY SYSTEMS 23-2 CYLINDERS 23-7 SYSTEMSELECTION 23-14 Quality Control 24-1 INTRODUCTION . 24-1 PERSONNEL . 24-1 FACTORS AND VARIABLES AFFECTING WELD QUALITY . 24-1 OPERATOR . 24-4 STANDARD METHODS FOR TESTING RESISTANCEWELDS 24-4 MECHANICALTESTING OF RESISTANCEWELDS . 24-27 Maintenance And Service 25-1 INTRODUCTION . 25-1 INSTALLATIONOF EQUIPMENT 25-1 SETUPOF EQUIPMENT 25-4 MACHINE AND EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE . 25-4 PERIODIC INSPECTION AND SERVICE. . 25-11 SPAREPARTS 25.14 APPLICATIONOF STANDARD METHODS FOR SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS 1-1 INDEX 11- INDEX Index Terms Links A Air Consumption defined 23-4 Air Cylinders See, Cylinders Air Systems accessories, lubricators defined 23-4 accessories, mufflers defined 23-5 accessories, regulators defined 23-4 accessories, types of 23-4 air consumption, calculation of 23-3 23-4 compressors 23-2 coolers 23-2 coolers, after-coolers 23-2 coolers, inter-coolers 23-2 general description 23-2 maintenance 25-9 reservoirs 23-2 23-4 typical installation 23-3 valves, types of 23-12 Alloy Steels See, Aluminum; Copper; High Carbon, Low Alloy Steels; Magnesium; Nickel; Zinc Alternating Current See, Current; Electrical System Aluminum alloys 11-2 alloys, corrosion resistance 11-1 11-22 alloys, dissimilar 11-19 alloys, lithium 11-2 alloys, spot welding 11-5 alloys, weldability chart 11-15Index Terms Links Aluminum (Cont.) alloys, welding schedules 11-22 11-23 11-32 chemical composition 11-2 clad materials, applications 11-1 cleaning, abrasive 11-4 cleaning, chemical 11-4 cleaning, methods 11-4 composition 11-2 corrosion resistance 11-1 current-force diagram 11-20 11-21 electrical conductivity 11-8 electrode life 11-6 flash welding 11-34 11-35 flash welding, "flash time" 11-34 general description 11-1 impurities, chemical 11-3 impurities, mechanical 11-3 material preparation 11-3 mechanical properties 11-12 physical properties 11-1 projection welding 11-33 quality control 11-24 11-25 recycle 11-12 roll spot welding 11-30 11-31 roll spot welding, machines 11-30 safety 11-2 seam welding 11-30 11-31 seam welding 2014 alloy 11-31 seam welding, electrode cleaning 11-31 seam welding, machines 11-30 seam welding, welding schedules 11-32 spot weld, narrow plastic range 11-9 spot weld, surface finish 11-9 spot welding 11-5 spot welding 2024-T Alclad 11-5 11-11 spot welding 5052-H34 Alclad 11-10 11-11 11-31 spot welding, edge distance 11-20 11-22 spot welding, electrode cooling 11-30Index Terms Links spot welding, electrode material 11-28 spot welding, equipment 11-5 spot welding, machines 11-5 spot welding, multiple thicknesses 11-11 spot welding, peel test 11-26 spot welding, porous weld 11-28 spot welding, radiography test 11-27 spot welding, setup procedure 11-22 spot welding, sheet separation 11-28 spot welding, shunting effect 11-19 spot welding, surface burning 11-27 spot welding, tensile-shear strength 11-26 spot welding, tip pickup 11-27 spot welding, unequal thicknesses 11-11 spot welding, unsymmetrical weld 11-28 spot welding, weld consistency 11-27 spot welding, weld cracks 11-27 spot welding, weld defects 11-27 spot welding, weld indentation 11-27 spot welding, weld metal expulsion 11-28 spot welding, weld quality 11-6 11-25 spot welding, weld tests 11-25 spot welding, welding current 11-9 surface preparation 11-3 temperature, effect of 11-2 tensile properties 11-1 11-13 thermal conductivity 11-8 upset welding 11-33 weld defects, causes—remedies 11-27 weld quality 11-6 weld quality, factors affecting 11-27 weldability chart 11-15 welding equipment 11-6 welding machines, polyphase direct energy 11-7 welding machines, single-phase direct energy 11-6 welding machines, stored energy type 11-6 11-7 Index Terms Links welding schedules 11-24 welding schedules, electrostatic stored-energy machines 11-23 welding schedules, single-phase direct energy machines 11-23 welding schedules, three-phase direct current rectifier machines 11-22 welding schedules, three-phase frequency converter machines 11-22 welding techniqe 11-10 welding variables 11-27 American Iron & Steel Institute (AISI) See, High Carbon, Low Alloy Steels American National Standards Institute (ANSI) control standards 20-5 American Welding Society (AWS) standard tests 24-4 Ammeter calibration of 22-6 22-7 general description 22-8 Applications 1-8 1-9 B Backups applications 17-17 general principles 17-17 Bench Mounted Welding Machine applications 16-5 large type 16-4 materials welded 16-4 options available 16-4 setup of 16-4 16-5 small type 16-4 Brasses See, Copper Bronzes See, Copper Index Terms Links Butt Joining definition 1-2 Butt Seam Welding applications 6-14 equipment 6-15 6-16 general description 6-14 process, examples of 6-14 6-16 C Capital Investment 1-12 Caps See, Electrodes Carbon See, High Carbon, Low Alloy Steels; Low Carbon Steels Circuits See Also, Electrical System secondary 19-1 welding 19-1 Coated Steels flash welding 10-5 painted surfaces, welding of 10-4 projection welding 10-5 seam welding 10-5 spot welding 10-1 Cobalt Base Alloys defined 15-2 physical properties 15-2 15-3 surface cleaning 15-2 variables 15-4 weldability 15-2 welding techniques 15-2 15-4 Contactors defined 20-6 20-7 electromechanical type 20-6 ignitron tube 19-9 20-7 maintenance of 25-10 25-11Index Terms Links Contactors (Cont.) mechanical type 20-6 silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR's) 19-9 20-7 Controls acoustic emission type 20-13 amortized stepper 20-10 basic systems 20-1 compensation systems, defined 20-11 computer based 20-4 contactors, defined 20-6 20-7 cooling, requirements defined 20-14 current compensation 20-11 data line input 20-6 delayed firing 20-10 dial input 20-5 discrete solid state devices 20-4 downslope, defined 20-10 downslope, illustrated 2-6 electronic timers 20-3 20-4 electrostatic principle 20-3 feedback systems, defined 20-11 20-12 heat control 20-7 history 20-1 "hold time", defined 20-4 ignitron tube, construction of 20-7 incremental switch 20-6 keypad input 20-6 line voltage compensation 20-11 maintenance 25-10 25-11 motor timing 20-3 multiple-phase 19-14 NEMA classifications & standards 20-4 "off time", defined 20-4 phase-shift heat control 20-8 pneumatic timing 20-3 power factor compensation 20-11 22-22 resistance monitoring 20-12Index Terms Links Controls (Cont.) RWMA standards 20-5 SCR's 20-4 20-7 silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR's) 20-7 single-phase 19-11 slope control 20-10 stepper heat control 20-10 "squeeze time", defined 20-4 systems, defined 20-1 20-3 three-phase 19-14 thumbwheel input 20-5 timers, types of 20-2 tip voltage regulations 20-12 transistors 20-4 upslope, defined 20-10 upslope, illustrated 2-6 user interface, types of 20-5 20-6 voltage compensation 22-22 "weld interval" 20-5 "weld interval", illustrated 2-5 "weld time", defined 20-4 "weld time", illustrated 2-2 Cool cool period 8-10 "cool time" 8-8 8-9 20-5 Coolers See, Air Systems Copper alloy weldability, factors affecting 13-5 alloying agents, effect of 13-1 13-3 alloying agents, list of 13-1 alloys, aluminum 13-2 alloys, aluminum bronze 13-4 alloys, applications 13-3 13-5 alloys, arsenical 13-3 alloys, beryllium 13-2 alloys, beryllium-copper 13-4 Index Terms Links Copper (Cont.) alloys, brasses 13-3 alloys, bronzes 13-4 alloys, bronzes, special 13-4 alloys, cadmium 13-2 alloys, cadmium bronze 13-4 alloys, chromium 13-2 alloys, classification 13-3 alloys, copper-nickel 13-4 alloys, cupro-nickel 13-4 alloys, defined 13-1 alloys, electrical conductivities 13-2 13-6 13-7 alloys, electrode considerations 13-7 alloys, flash welding 13-11 alloys, lead 13-2 alloys, leaded 13-3 alloys, leaded phosphor bronze 13-4 alloys, nickel 13-2 13-4 alloys, nickel-silver 13-4 alloys, phosphor bronze 13-4 alloys, physical properties 13-1 13-6 13-7 alloys, projection welding 13-10 alloys, seam welding 13-10 alloys, silicon 13-2 alloys, silicon copper 13-4 alloys, silver bearing 13-3 alloys, spot welding 13-8 alloys, surface cleaning 13-5 alloys, thermal conductivities 13-2 13-7 alloys, tin 13-2 13-4 alloys, "weld time" 13-7 alloys, welding characteristics 13-7 alloys, welding forces 13-7 alloys, welding schedules 13-7 13-10 alloys, zinc 13-3 applications 13-1 13-3 brasses 13-3 Index Terms Links Copper (Cont.) bronzes 13-4 commercial bronze 13-3 deoxidizing agents 13-3 flash welding 13-11 general description 13-1 general principles 13-4 high brass 13-3 high copper , defined 13-3 leaded brasses 13-3 low brass 13-3 muntz metal 13-3 nickel alloys 13-4 physical properties 13-6 plain brasses, listing of 13-3 plain brasses, properties defined 13-3 projection welding 13-10 red brass 13-3 seam welding 13-10 spot welding 13-5 spot welding, cartridge brass 13-9 spot welding, copper alloys 13-8 spot welding, copper silicon 13-9 spot welding, high brass 13-8 spot welding, low brass 13-8 spot welding, muntz metal 13-8 spot welding, phosphor bronze 13-10 spot welding, red brass 13-9 spot welding, silicon brass 13-9 spot welding, silicon bronze 13-10 spot welding, yellow brass 13-8 surface cleaning, methods defined 13-5 surface preparation 13-5 tin alloys, listing of 13-4 weldability, factors affecting 13-5 yellow brass 13-3 zinc alloys, listing of 13-3 Index Terms Links Corrosion See, Aluminum Costs 1-9 Cross Tension See, Tests Cross Wire Welding applications 1-9 1-15 6-1 design considerations 1-14 electrode, setup of 6-3 equipment 6-1 6-3 general description 6-1 heat, determining factors 6-3 machines 6-2 6-3 materials 6-1 nickel 14-15 nickel, welding conditions 14-9 "percent setdown" 6-3 setup for 6-2 surface preparation 6-1 tests 6-4 variables 6-3 weld quality 6-3 weld strength 6-3 "weld time" 6-3 welding conditions, Inconel 14-9 welding conditions, Monel 14-9 welding conditions, nickel 14-9 welding current 6-3 welding force 6-3 welding technique 6-2 welds, examples of 6-4 Current See Also, Electrical System alternating 19-3 alternating-current (ac) circuits 19-2 bidirectional pulses 19-12 compensation 20-11Index Terms Links Current (Cont.) constant 22-22 control of 22-2 direct-current (dc) circuit 19-2 equivalent continuous ratings 21-6 nameplate ratings 21-6 21-7 secondary 19-2 19-3 short-circuit, measurement of 22-14 unidirectional pulses 19-12 welding current 2-5 19-3 19-12 welding current diagram 11-20 11-21 Cylinders air-operated 23-12 double acting, adjustable-retractable stroke 23-9 double acting, adjustable stroke 23-9 double acting, defined 23-9 double acting, fixed stroke 23-9 double acting, types of 23-9 fixed stroke, cable 23-10 fixed stroke, intensifying 23-10 23-11 fixed stroke, multipiston 23-10 fixed stroke, multiposition 23-10 fixed stroke, rodless 23-10 general description 23-8 hammer blow 23-12 maintenance 25-9 mounting options, types of 23-10 23-11 mounts, centerline 23-11 mounts, foot 23-11 mounts, pivot 23-11 one-piece type 23-11 pressure regulator 23-4 single acting, diaphragm style 23-8 single acting, ram style 23-8 single acting, spring-return style 23-8 single acting, standard configuration 23-8 Index Terms Links Cylinders (Cont.) single acting, types of styles 23-8 speed conrol valves 23-12 threaded-head type 23-10 tie-rod type 23-10 types, determination of 23-10 23-11 valves, types of 23-12 D Defects See, Quality Control; Weld Design Considerations 1-12 Dies See Also, Flash Welding; Projection Welding locator type 17-2 projection welding, die set 17-7 Direct Current See, Current; Electrical System Direct Energy machine, defined 16-1 polyphase welding machine 11-7 single-phase current-forcce diagram 11-21 single-phase welding machines 11-6 single-phase welding schedules 11-23 three-phase current-force diagram 11-20 Direct Welding defined 2-3 Dissimilar Metals applications 15-6 15-7 flash welding, applications 15-9 flash welding, welding technique 15-9 spot welding 2-5 15-5 spot welding, electrode material 15-7 spot welding, heat balance 15-7 spot welding, weldiing schedules 15-8 upset welding, welding technique 15-9 welding conditions 15-7 Index Terms Links Downslope See, Controls Dressing See, Electrodes Duty Cycle defined 19-3 equation 19-3 E Economics 1-9 Eddy Current See, Tests Electrical System alternating current 19-2 alternating-current circuits 19-2 alternating current, definition 19-2 alternating current, impedance 19-2 characteristics 19-1 direct current 19-2 direct-current circuits 19-2 electrical circuit 19-2 electrical law 19-2 impedance 19-3 19-11 19-12 Ohm's law 19-2 power conversion equipment 19-3 reactance 19-2 19-3 requirements 19-1 resistance 1-4 19-2 19-3 secondary circuit, reactance 19-2 secondary circuit, resistance 1-4 19-2 19-3 secondary welding circuit 19-1 welding controls 19-1 19-2 welding current 19-2 Electricity See, Power Supply Electrodes adapter shanks, female 18-17Index Terms Links Electrodes (Cont.) adapter shanks, male 18-16 cap tips, female 18-17 cap tips, male 18-16 cleaning 11-31 cooling of 11-29 11-31 18-27 18-28 definition 18-1 deformation of 18-11 dissimilar metals 18-2 dressing 11-31 electrode life 18-28 flash welding 18-26 18-27 flash welding, application 18-26 flash welding, clamping 18-27 flash welding , designs 18-27 flash welding, materials 18-26 force 2-5 functions of 18-1 heat generation 1-5 holders 18-20 holders, special 18-23 holders, standard offset 18-22 holders, straight ejector 18-21 holders, straight nonejector 18-21 holders, water-cooled low inertia 18-24 irregular 18-19 maintenance 11-29 18-2 25-6 25-7 materials 11-28 18-2 materials, choice of 18-12 materials, copper base 18-11 materials, electrical resistivity 18-12 18-28 materials, group classifications 18-12 materials, mechanical properties 18-3 materials, physical properties 18-3 materials, refractory metals 18-11 materials, RWMA Class 1 to 20 18-4 18-11 18-12 materials, RWMA classifications 18-11Index Terms Links Electrodes (Cont.) materials, specialty 18-12 materials, weldability 18-8 mushrooming 18-12 offset 18-19 projection welding, designs 18-24 projection welding, deterioration of 18-24 projection welding, die sets 18-24 projection welding, factors effecting 18-25 projection welding, materials 18-24 projection welding, selection of 18-25 projection welding, setup 18-25 redressing 12-2 25-6 seam welding, applications 18-26 seam welding, wheel contours 18-26 seam welding, wheel designs 18-26 spot welding, adapter shanks 18-15 spot welding, applications 18-12 spot welding, caps 18-15 spot welding, cap-shank assemblies 18-15 spot welding, cooling of 18-27 spot welding, designs 18-15 spot welding, electrode size 18-15 spot welding, flat-faced design 18-20 spot welding, holder, applications 18-24 spot welding, holder, design of 18-20 spot welding, holder tapers 18-20 spot welding, holder, types of 18-20 spot welding, material selection 18-12 spot welding, nose designs 18-15 spot welding, offset designs 18-20 spot welding, shank assemblies 18-15 spot welding, special 18-19 18-20 surface cleaning 11-29 tapers 18-13 18-18 tip-dressing tool 11-29 water-inlet tube 18-28Index Terms Links Electro-forging definition 1-3 Equipment See Also, Machines; Section 3-(Chapters 16-25) ac to dc equipment 19-11 direct-current equipment 19-11 selection of 1-9 single-phase rectifier equipment 19-11 three-phase rectifier equipment 19-14 two-phase rectifier equipment 19-13 19-14 F Fatigue See, Tests Feedback See, Controls Feeders See, Hopper Feeds; Magazine Feeds Filters 23-4 Fixtures See Also, Jigs applications 17-1 conveyor type 17-12 design considerations 17-5 design principles 17-5 17-6 flash welding, alligator type 17-16 flash welding, general description 17-15 flash welding, horizontal type 17-16 flash welding, slide type 17-16 flash welding, vertical type 17-16 function defined 17-1 17-2 general description 17-1 gun welding machines 17-12 interchangeable, examples of 17-7 Iron-Man type 17-15 materials 17-3 Index Terms Links Fixtures (Cont.) press welding 17-10 sandwich type 17-7 seam welding, general description 17-15 selection of 17-2 shuttle type 17-2 17-12 upset welding, general description 17-15 17-16 use of 17-1 workholding devices, types defined 17-10 Flash Welding See Also, Aluminum; Coated Steels; Copper; Dissimilar Metals; Electrodes; High Carbon, Low Alloy Steels; Low Carbon Steels; Machines; Magnesium; Nickel; Stainless Steel; Titanium advantages 5-2 5-3 aligned joints 5-9 aluminum 11-34 applications 1-8 1-16 1-17 5-3 backups 5-5 base metal structure 5-13 bend tests 5-15 clad steel, welding of 10-5 clamping pressure 5-5 coated steels, welding of 10-5 controls 5-4 copper 13-11 costs 1-10 cracking 5-13 current 5-7 definition 1-2 5-1 design considerations 1-16 die burns 5-5 5-13 die material 5-4 die opening 5-10 die wear 5-5 dies 5-4 5-10Index Terms Links Flash Welding (Cont.) dimensional variables 5-7 discontinuities 5-13 discontinuities, mechanical 5-13 discontinuities, metallurigcal 5-13 dissimilar metals, applications 15-9 dissimilar metals , welding technique 15-9 electrodes 18-26 end preparation 5-7 5-9 equipment 5-3 equipment, costs 1-10 equipment, selection 1-10 fixture, design considerations 5-5 fixtures 5-5 17-15 17-16 flash removal 5-11 "flash time" 5-7 5-15 flash welding cycle 5-7 flashing 5-2 5-11 flashing, parabolic 5-2 flashing pattern 5-2 flashing voltage 5-1 5-11 flashing voltage cutoff 5-12 flat spots 5-13 force 5-7 gas shielding 5-10 general principles 1-17 5-1 heat balance 5-9 heat generation 1-7 high carbon, low alloy steels 8-12 8-13 hot spots 5-5 initial die opening 5-10 joint, bevel type 1-17 joint design 5-7 joint geometry 5-10 joint lengths, maximum 5-9 joint, miter 1-17 limitations 5-2 5-3 Index Terms Links Flash Welding (Cont.) low carbon steels 7-13 7-16 7-17 machines 5-3 5-11 16-8 magnesium 12-3 material certification 5-15 materials 5-3 metal loss 5-2 5-10 metals welded 5-3 5-15 miter joints 5-3 5-9 nickel 14-18 nickel, fixturing 14-18 nickel, flashing distance 14-18 nickel, jaw spacing 14-18 nickel, surface preparation 14-18 nickel, weld quality 14-20 nickel, weld tests 14-20 nickel, welding conditions 14-17 nickel, welding current 14-19 operation, sequence of 5-1 oxides 5-13 part alignment 5-10 part design 1-17 5-7 5-9 part, random samples 5-15 plated steels 10-5 platen motion 5-6 5-7 5-10 postheat cycle 5-4 postheating 5-7 5-11 preheat cycle 5-4 preheating 5-7 5-10 principles 5-1 5-2 procedure qualification 5-15 procedures 5-7 products welded, examples of 5-3 rings 5-9 samples, random testing 5-15 setup for 5-2 5-4 shapes welded 5-3 Index Terms Links Flash Welding (Cont.) stainless steels 9-8 steel, flat sheets 5-5 steel, tubing 5-5 steel, welding of 5-15 surface preparation 5-10 temperature distribution 5-2 5-9 tests 5-15 tests, destructive 5-15 time, welding variables 5-7 titanium 15-2 tubing diameters, maximum 5-9 upset distance 5-12 upset, requirements of 5-12 upsetting 5-2 5-12 upsetting current 5-2 5-7 5-12 upsetting force 5-18 upsetting pressure 5-12 5-18 upsetting rate 5-12 upsetting variables 5-12 variables 5-6 5-7 5-11 5-13 visual inspection 5-15 voids 5-13 weld quality 1-11 5-13 "weld time" 5-7 welding schedule 5-11 5-15 welds, common types 5-8 Flash Welding Machine clamping 16-10 controls 16-9 electro-hydraulic servo 16-10 fixturing 16-10 flashing mechanism 16-9 horizontal clamping 16-10 hydraulic 16-9 hydraulic system 16-9 motor-operated 16-9 Index Terms Links Flash Welding Machine (Cont.) servo system 16-10 setup of 16-8 16-9 transformer 16-9 upsetting mechanism 16-9 vertical clamping 16-10 Flicker cause and effect 21-3 cyclic 21-3 noncyclic 21-3 objectionable limits 21-4 Fluid Power air fluid, general description 23-1 general description 23-1 hydraulic fluids, general description 23-1 hydraulic fluids, mixtures 23-1 hydraulic fluids, petroleum-based oils 23-1 hydraulic fluids, synthetics 23-2 system, selection of 23-14 Fluids See, Fluid Power Force control of 22-3 electrode force 2-5 forging force 8-9 8-10 welding force 1-6 11-20 11-21 Forge "forge delay time" 2-5 forging force 8-9 8-10 Frequency Changer Machine defined 16-17 Frequency Converter System conventional type 19-9 defined 19-9 full wave type 19-9 general principles 19-9 Full Wave See, Rectifier Systems Index Terms Links Fusion See, Weld G Gage force type 22-20 hydraulic force type 22-20 strain type 22-21 Grain refinement 8-9 8-10 Guards See, Installation; Machines Gun Welding Machine jigs & fixtures 17-12 17-13 portable type 16-13 16-14 Guns (Welding) general description 16-14 scissor 16-14 self-equalizing 16-14 straight acting 16-14 H Half Wave See, Rectifier Systems Heat See Also, Flash Welding, preheat & postheat; Heat Generation; Postheat; Preheat "heat time" 2-5 "preheat time" 2-5 treatment 8-1 8-9 Heat Control circuit diagram 20-10 defined 20-7 electronic method 20-7 20-9 mechanical method 20-7 monitoring 20-10Index Terms Links Heat Control (Cont.) phase-shift 20-8 stepper 20-10 Heat Generation contacting surfaces, considerations of 1-5 defined 1-3 effects of 1-5 electrodes, considerations of 1-5 flash welding 1-7 heat energy, equation 1-4 projection welding 1-7 shunting effect, considerations of 1-6 time, considerations of 1-6 upset welding 1-7 welding force, considerations of 1-6 work materials, considerations of 1-6 High Alloy Steels defined 9-1 High Carbon, Low Alloy Steels alloys, carbon 8-2 alloys, chromium 8-2 alloys, cobalt 8-3 alloys, composition of 8-2 alloys, effects of 8-2 alloys, manganese 8-2 alloys, molybdenum 8-2 alloys, nickel 8-2 alloys, silicon 8-2 alloys, sulfur 8-2 alloys, tungsten 8-2 alloys, vanadium 8-2 chemical composition 8-1 classification, numbering of 8-2 definition 8-1 flash welding 8-12 flash welding, considerations 8-12 flash welding, equipment 8-13Index Terms Links High Carbon, Low Alloy Steels (Cont.) flash welding, postheating 8-13 flash welding, preheating 8-13 general description 8-1 heat treatment 8-1 8-9 high strength–low alloy, HSLA 8-14 8-15 HSLA, weldability of 8-14 8-15 machine setup, AISI 4130 8-5 8-6 postweld heat treatment 8-1 principles 8-1 seam welding 8-12 seam welding, welding schedules 8-12 spot welding 8-3 spot welding, automatic tempering 8-4 spot welding, comparison to low carbon steel 8-3 spot welding, electrode pressure 8-4 spot welding, electrode tip size 8-4 spot welding, forging 8-8 8-10 spot welding, grain refinement 8-8 8-10 spot welding, low alloy steels 8-11 spot welding, multiple-impulse 8-4 spot welding, postweld heat treatment cycle 8-4 spot welding, preheating 8-8 spot welding, "quench time" 8-4 8-7 spot welding, single-impulse 8-4 spot welding, temper current 8-5 8-7 spot welding, "temper time" 8-5 spot welding, temperature, critical factors 8-3 8-4 spot welding, tempering 8-8 spot welding , tensile-shear strength 8-4 8-7 spot welding, time-temperature curve 8-4 spot welding, weld structure 8-4 spot welding, "weld time" 8-3 8-4 8-7 spot welding, welding current 8-3 8-7 Index Terms Links High Carbon, Low Alloy Steels (Cont.) spot welding, welding pressure 8-3 spot welding, welding schedules 8-3 8-7 8-8 8-11 steel, AISI 4130 8-5 8-7 steel, AISI 4340 8-6 8-8 steels, AISI 1020, 1035, 1045 8-6 8-7 steels, types of 8-1 surface preparation 8-3 welding variables, effects of 8-4 High Frequency Welding application 16-16 defined 16-16 direct current, defined 19-11 welding schedules 16-17 High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) defined 8-14 welding practices 8-15 Hold "hold time" 2-5 20-4 Holders See, Electrodes Hopper Feeds applications 17-13 17-14 defined, types of 17-14 general description 17-13 knife type 17-14 rotary type 17-14 vibrating type 17-14 Hot Riveting advantages 6-11 applications 6-9 6-11 defined 6-10 equipment 6-11 Hydraulic Systems components 23-5 general description 23-5 maintenance 25-8 25-9 Index Terms Links Hydraulic Systems (Cont.) pumps, types of 23-6 23-7 reservoirs, defined 23-7 I Ignitron Tube 20-6 See Also, Installation Impedance 19-3 19-11 19-12 Indirect Welding advantages 2-4 circuit 2-4 defined 2-4 fixtures 17-8 17-9 tooling 17-8 Inspection air system 25-11 annually 25-13 cooling system 25-11 dies 25-11 electrical system 25-11 electrodes 25-11 hydraulic system 25-11 mechanical 25-11 monthly 25-12 periodic 25-11 quarterly 25-13 visual 8-10 14-14 weekly 25-12 x-ray 22-29 24-12 Installation air service 25-2 cylinders 25-4 electrical power 25-4 electrical service 25-2 equipment setup 25-4 flow switches 25-3 general description 25-1 Index Terms Links Installation (Cont.) guards 25-3 25-4 hydraulic service 25-3 ignitron tube 25-3 lighting 25-4 lubrication 25-4 machine settings 25-1 25-2 motor 25-2 25-4 preparation, steps for setup 25-1 thermal considerations 21-14 transformer 25-2 25-3 valves 25-4 water service 25-3 weld control 25-4 Instrumentation ammeter 22-7 comparative meters 22-21 current meter 22-25 cycle counter 22-25 digital meter 22-11 22-12 effective power meters 22-28 equipment 22-5 feedback methods 22-21 force, measurement of 22-12 gages 22-20 22-21 general description 22-1 megger 22-17 22-18 microhm meter 22-16 millivolt-second monitor 22-27 ohmmeter 22-16 oscilloscopes 22-18 personnel safety 22-2 potentiometer 22-5 power factor, measurement of 22-15 pressure, measurement of 22-12 process control 22-21 process monitoring 22-18Index Terms Links Instrumentation (Cont.) process verification 22-27 recorders 22-18 resistivity probe 22-28 safety procedures 22-1 22-2 short-circuit, measurement of 22-15 standard cell 22-5 temperature devices 22-13 thermocouple 22-13 thermometer 22-13 transducers 22-20 22-21 ultrasonics 22-27 variables, considering factors 22-4 22-5 voltmeter 22-6 22-10 22-11 watt-second monitor 22-25 22-26 weldscopes 22-18 Insulation construction 17-4 17-5 general description 17-5 materials 17-3 Interval See, Weld J Jigs See Also, Fixtures applications 17-1 17-2 design considerations 17-5 design principles 17-5 function defined 17-1 17-2 general description 17-1 gun welding machines 17-12 materials 17-3 selection of 17-2 Index Terms Links K kVA See Also, Transformers demand, defined 19-3 rating, defined 19-3 L Lap Joining definition 1-2 Lap Seam Welding See, Seam Welding Lead alloys 15-5 welding technique 15-5 Lighting See, Installation Limitations 1-18 Load Factor 21-5 Locators applications 17-17 calibration 17-3 design considerations 17-3 examples of 17-2 general description 17-2 17-17 guidebars 17-17 maintenance 17-3 materials 17-3 nonconductive 17-3 setup of 17-2 17-3 stops 17-17 workpiece contact 17-3 Low Carbon Steels alloys, carbon 7-2 alloys, composition of 7-2 alloys, effects of 7-1 alloys, manganese 7-2 Index Terms Links Low Carbon Steels (Cont.) alloys, phosphorus 7-2 alloys, silicon 7-2 alloys, sulfur 7-2 definition 7-1 flash welding 7-13 17-15 17-16 flash welding, dimensional variables 5-16 5-17 7-13 7-14 flash welding, scaly stock 7-17 7-18 flash welding, upsetting forces 5-12 5-18 7-16 general description 7-1 mash seam welding 7-13 projection welding 7-11 projection welding, scaly stock 7-18 projection welding, variables 7-11 projection welding, weld shape 7-11 projection welding, weld size 7-11 projection welding, "weld time" 7-12 projection welding, welding schedules 3-13 7-11 roll spot welding 7-13 scaly stock, considering factors 7-17 seam welding 7-12 7-13 seam welding, continuous timing 7-12 seam welding, interrupted timing 7-12 seam welding, materials 7-12 seam welding, scaly stock 7-17 seam welding, timing 7-12 seam welding, welding current 7-12 seam welding, welding force 7-12 seam welding, welding schedules 7-12 7-17 seam welding, welding speeds 7-12 spot welding 7-3 spot welding, automotive grade mild steel 7-5 7-6 spot welding, destructive tests 7-10 spot welding, electrode selection 7-5 7-6 7-7 spot welding, heat effect 7-9 7-10 spot welding, multiple-impulse weld 7-11 spot welding, peel test 7-10Index Terms Links spot welding, quality control 7-10 spot welding, scaly stock 7-17 spot welding, setup 7-5 spot welding, single-impulse weld 7-6 7-11 spot welding, stock weldability 7-10 spot welding, tensile-shear strength 7-4 spot welding, tension-shear test 7-10 spot welding, variables 7-5 7-6 spot welding, visual test 7-10 spot welding, weld quality 7-3 7-10 spot welding, weld strength 7-3 spot welding, weld tests 7-10 spot welding, "weld time" 7-5 7-10 spot welding, welding current 7-5 spot welding, welding force 7-5 spot welding, welding schedules 7-6 7-14 7-15 surface cleaning 7-3 surface preparation 7-2 upset welding 7-16 Lubrication See, Maintenace Lubricators 23-3 23-4 M Machines See Also, Equipment; Flash Welding Machine; Seam Welding Machine; Spot Welding Machine aluminum welding 11-6 11-8 11-29 battery-operated 11-7 bench mounted 16-4 16-5 capital investment 1-11 control equipment 16-1 controls, SCR's 16-14 costs 1-9 16-1 design considerations 1-12 design of 16-1 Index Terms Links Machines (Cont.) dial tables 17-11 direct energy type 16-1 electrical circuit 16-1 fixture, configurations 16-12 flash welding 16-8 frequency changer 16-17 frequency converter type 11-7 general principles 16-1 guards 25-3 25-4 gun welding 16-13 16-14 mechanical systems 16-1 miscellaneous types 16-2 multiple electrode 17-7 multiple spot type 16-11 multiple spot welding, hydraulic 17-12 multipoint welding 1-10 operating costs 1-9 polyphase direct energy type 11-7 press welding 16-5 17-10 projection welding 1-10 rectifier type 11-7 16-17 rocker arm 16-2 16-3 roll spot welding 11-30 safety 25-3 seam welding 1-10 11-30 16-6 single-phase direct energy type 16-1 single-phase type 16-1 special types 16-2 spike welding 16-17 spot welding 1-9 16-11 standard type 16-2 stored energy type 11-6 11-7 16-1 16-2 three-phase type 16-1 types of 1-8 16-2 upset welding 16-8 16-10 Macroetch See, Tests Index Terms Links Magazine Feeds general description 17-13 setup 17-14 17-15 Magnesium alloys 12-1 alloys, chrome-pickle coating 12-1 alloys, electrode cooling 12-3 alloys, electrode maintenance 12-2 12-3 alloys, oil coating 12-2 alloys, spot welding 12-2 alloys, surface cleaning 12-2 alloys, surface preparation 12-1 alloys, welding schedules 12-2 chrome-pickle coating, removal of 12-1 cleaning solutions 12-5 electrode life 12-2 12-5 electrode material 12-2 12-5 flash welding 12-3 general description 12-1 material preparation 12-1 oil coating, removal of 12-2 physical properties 12-1 12-4 seam welding 12-2 spot welding 12-2 12-3 spot welding, dissimilar metals 12-3 spot welding, equipment 12-2 surface cleaning 12-2 variables 12-6 weldability of 12-1 welding schedules 12-2 12-6 welding schedules, electrostatic stored energy machines 12-8 welding schedules , single-phase alternating current machines 12-7 welding schedules , three-phase dry disc rectifier machines 12-7 welding schedules , three-phase frequency converter machines 12-6 Index Terms Links Maintenance See Also, Electrodes air system 25-9 controls 25-10 cylinders 25-9 electrodes, care of 25-6 25-7 electronic contactors 25-10 general description 25-5 good housekeeping 25-4 25-5 hydraulic system 25-8 25-9 ignition contactors 25-8 lubrication 25-6 25-9 preventive 25-4 primary disconnect 25-8 routine 25-4 secondary circuit 25-7 25-8 spare parts 25-4 25-14 switching devices 25-10 25-11 tooling 25-6 25-7 transformer 25-6 25-8 welding contactors 25-10 25-11 Mash Seam Welding applications 4-2 low carbon steels 7-13 materials 4-2 weld quality 4-2 welding technique 4-2 Materials See Also, Section 2-(Chapters 7-15) copper-cadmium alloy, RWMA Class 1 11-29 copper, hardness-temperature curves 18-2 dissimilar 2-5 electrode 18-2 ferrous 2-5 fixtures 17-3 jigs 17-3 locators 17-2 Index Terms Links Materials (Cont.) magnetic 17-3 nonferrous 2-5 nonmagnetic 17-3 savings 1-11 synthetic 17-3 thickness 2-5 2-6 tooling 17-2 Megger 22-17 22-18 Metal Gathering general description 6-12 limitations 6-12 process, defined 6-12 Metals See Also, Dissimilar Metals; Refractory Metals dissimilar, applications 15-7 dissimilar, upset welding 15-9 dissimilar, welding conditions 15-8 dissimilar, welding technique 15-5 similar, weding technique 15-5 Microhm meter 22-16 Millivolt-second monitor 22-25 Molybdenum See, Refractory Metals Mufflers 23-5 Multiple Welding fixtures 17-9 17-10 tooling 17-9 N Nameplate Rating defined 19-4 National Electrical Code (NEC ) See, Power Supply National Electrical Manufacturers' Association (NEMA) classifications & standards 20-4 20-5 Index Terms Links Nickel alloys, chemical composition 14-1 14-3 alloys, coring 14-13 alloys, defined 14-1 alloys, distortion 14-13 alloys, Duranickel 14-3 alloys, expulsion 14-12 alloys, Inconel 14-3 14-11 14-18 alloys, Inconel 'X' 14-7 14-10 alloys, indentation 14-12 14-13 alloys, low strength 14-14 alloys, mechanical properties 14-1 14-3 alloys, Monel 14-3 14-11 14-13 14-18 14-19 alloys, nickel 14-3 14-11 alloys, nugget misplaced 14-14 alloys, nugget misshaped 14-14 alloys, physical properties 14-4 alloys, porosity 14-13 alloys, spot welding defects 14-12 alloys, surface burning 14-12 alloys, surface preparation 14-2 alloys, weld cracking 14-13 alloys, welding technique 14-8 chemical cleaning 14-2 chemical composition 14-3 coring 14-11 14-13 corrosion resistance 14-1 cross tension 14-10 cross wire welding 14-9 14-15 die burns 14-2 14-18 distortion, factors affecting 14-12 flash welding 14-18 flash welding, alloy rods 14-17 flash welding, fixturing 14-18 flash welding, flashing distance 14-18 flash welding, jaw spacing 14-18Index Terms Links Nickel (Cont.) flash welding, surface preparation 14-18 flash welding, upset requirements 14-18 flash welding, weld quality 14-20 flash welding , weld tests 14-20 flash welding , welding current 14-19 general description 14-1 hot spots 14-2 indentation, factors affecting 14-12 macroetch test 14-15 mechanical cleaning 14-2 mechanical properties 14-3 peel test 14-14 physical properties 14-1 14-4 pickling 14-2 porosity 14-10 projection welding 14-15 projection welding, weld tests 14-15 radiographic test 14-14 seam welding 14-16 14-17 seam welding, electrode suggestions 14-16 seam welding, Monel 14-17 seam welding, weld quality 14-16 seam welding, weld tests 14-16 spot welding 14-6 spot welding, dissimilar metals 14-9 spot welding, electrode maintenance 14-8 spot welding , electrode suggestions 14-6 spot welding, variables 14-6 spot welding, weld defects 14-12 spot welding, weld quality 14-8 spot welding, weld tests 14-14 spot welding, welding schedules 14-4 14-5 14-9 surface burning 14-11 surface preparation 14-2 tensile-shear strength 14-10 tension-shear test 14-14Index Terms Links Nickel (Cont.) twist test 14-14 visual inspection 14-14 weld defects 14-12 weld distortion 14-11 14-12 weld size 14-10 "weld time" 14-6 welding current 14-6 welding force 14-6 welding specifications 14-8 O Ohmmeter 22-16 Ohm's Law equation 19-2 Operator machine set up 24-4 safety equipment 25-5 Oscilloscopes 22-18 P Panels placement of 16-14 valve accessory 16-14 Parallel Welding advantages 2-3 defined 2-3 Part See Also, Workpiece moving part 16-12 spare parts 25-14 Peel See, Tests Percent Setdown See, Cross Wire Welding Percussion Welding applications 6-13 6-14Index Terms Links Percussion Welding (Cont.) definition 1-2 general description 6-12 joints, butt welded 6-14 limitations 6-14 materials 6-13 6-14 principles of operation 6-12 process, diagram of 6-13 Personnel equipment setup 25-4 safety 22-2 25-3 Pillow See, Tests Plated Steels See, Coated Steels; Steels Pneumatic Systems See, Air Systems Polyphase See, Direct Energy; Machines; Power Supply Portable Gun Welding Machine controls 16-14 guns 16-14 panel 16-14 secondary cables 16-14 setup of 16-13 system configuration 16-13 transformer configurations 16-13 transformer sizes 16-13 Postheat See Also, Flash Welding; High Carbon, Low Alloy Steels defined 8-12 8-13 Postweld heat treatment 8-1 8-4 "postweld interval" 2-5 Potentiometer 22-5 Index Terms Links Power Conversion ac to ac conversion 19-3 ac to dc conversion 19-3 frequency, defined 19-3 high frequency direct current, defined 19-11 kVA demand, defined 19-3 kVA rating, defined 19-3 Power Factor See Also, Power Supply compension 20-11 22-22 defined 21-3 21-5 factors affecting 21-3 improvement of 21-3 measurement of 22-14 Power Rates defined 21-5 determining factors 21-5 Power Supply cables, conduit sizes 21-6 21-7 composite curves 21-4 connected load 21-5 diversity factor, defined 21-13 electricity, source of 21-1 equivalent continuous current ratings 21-6 feeder size, calculation of 21-7 in-plant system, description of 21-7 in-plant system, determining factors 21-7 lamp flicker 21-3 21-4 load factor 21-5 nameplate current ratings 21-6 21-7 NEC carrying capacities, for wires & cables 21-6 21-7 out-plant system, description of 21-1 power factor 21-3 21-5 protective devices 21-15 service solutions for 21-2 single-phase load 21-1 21-2 Index Terms Links Power Supply (Cont.) thermal loading, equivalent continuous 21-14 thermal rating 21-7 utilities, metering methods 21-5 21-7 voltage drop 21-9 Preheat See Also, Flash Welding; High Carbon, Low Alloy Steels defined 8-13 "preheat time" 2-5 8-8 8-9 Press Welding Machine defined, type of 16-5 jigs & fixtures 17-10 projection welding 16-5 RWMA Size 1 17-8 17-11 RWMA Size 3 17-11 RWMA Size 4 17-7 17-10 spot welding 16-5 Pressure control of 22-3 regulator 23-4 Preweld "preweld interval" 2-5 Primary coils 19-7 transformer 19-6 voltage 19-3 Primary Windings 19-4 Principles 1-3 Process calibration 22-5 control 22-21 monitoring 22-18 variables 22-2 variables, measurement of 22-8 verification 22-27Index Terms Links Processes (Welding) See Also, Section 1-(Chapters 1-6) additional 6-1 defined 1-1 Production Rate defined 19-3 Projection Welding See Also, Aluminum ; Coated Steels; Copper; Electrodes; Low Carbon Steels; Machines; Nickel; Stainless Steels advantages 1-14 3-1 advantages, circular shape 3-3 aluminum 11-33 applications 3-3 3-4 17-10 coated steels 10-4 conical punch 3-3 copper 13-10 costs 1-10 definition 1-2 3-1 design considerations 1-14 3-3 die set 17-7 dies 3-11 electrode design 3-12 electrode force, principal functions 3-8 3-10 electrode material 3-12 electrodes 3-11 18-24 electrodes, flat 3-11 general description 3-1 heat balance 3-17 heat balance, factors affecting 3-17 heat dissipations 3-17 heat generation 1-7 low carbon steels 7-11 7-12 7-17 machines, press type 16-5 17-10 materials 3-3 3-17 multiple projections 3-11Index Terms Links Projection Welding (Cont.) nickel 14-15 nickel, dissimilar alloys 14-15 nickel, weld tests 14-15 part preparation 3-12 part tolerance, effect of 3-12 plated steels 10-5 principal uses 3-2 principles 3-8 projection design 3-3 projection shape 3-12 projection size 3-12 projections, annular 3-5 projections, bubble type 3-3 projections, elongated 3-6 projections, type of 1-14 3-3 quality control 24-32 ring welds, formation of 3-10 spherical punch 3-3 spherical radius 3-3 stainless steels 9-8 surface cleaning 3-12 surface marking 3-12 truncated punch 3-3 weld, factors affecting 3-8 weld formation 3-8 weld nut, applications 3-7 weld nut, types of 3-7 weld quality 3-12 "weld time" 3-8 3-11 welding current 3-8 welding force 3-17 welding technique 3-17 welds, types of 1-14 Projection Welding Machine See Also, Press Welding Machine defined 1-10 16-5 press type 17-10 17-11Index Terms Links Pulsation Welding definition 1-2 Pumps classificatins 23-6 gear type 23-7 non-positive displacement 23-6 piston type 23-7 positive displacement 23-6 radial piston 23-7 reciprocating 23-5 screw type 23-7 vane types 23-6 Push-Pull Welding defined 2-4 Q Quality Control See Also, Tests control charts 24-20 electrode force, effects of 24-1 24-2 general description 24-1 nondestructive tests 24-4 standard test data forms 24-4 statistical control, determination of factors 24-20 statistical control, installation of 24-19 statistical methods 24-19 surface resistance analyzer 24-17 24-18 tensile-shear strength 24-5 (Note 2) test, torsional-shear 24-13 testing, general description 24-4 testing, methods defined 24-4 tests, data sheets 24-24 tests, flash welds 24-6 tests, preparatio n for 24-6 tests, roll spot welds 24-5 Index Terms Links Quality Control (Cont.) tests, seam welds 24-5 tests, spot welds 24-5 tests, types of 24-5 24-6 tests, various types 24-5 weld quality, factors affecting 24-1 weld quality, variable factors 24-1 24-2 weld tests, AWS standards 24-4 Quench "quench time" 2-5 8-5 8-7 R Radiographic See, Tests Reactance 19-2 19-3 Recorders 22-18 Rectifier See Also, Transformers circuit, six-phase star 19-14 19-15 leg 19-12 transformer 19-12 19-13 Rectifier Machine See Also, Equipment; Magnesium, welding schedules defined 11-7 11-8 16-17 dry-disc type 16-2 Rectifier Systems single-phase, advantages 19-13 single-phase, defined 19-12 three-phase, defined 19-14 three-phase, full wave 19-14 three-phase, half wave 19-14 two-phase, advantages 19-14 two-phase, defined 19-13 two-phase, disadvantages 19-14 Redressing See, Electrodes Index Terms Links Refractory Metals defined 15-4 general description 15-4 molybdenum, welding technique 15-4 nickel, use of 15-4 oxidation 15-4 spot welding 15-4 tantalum, welding technique 15-4 tungsten, welding technique 15-4 upset welding 15-4 "weld time" 15-4 welding conditions 15-4 Regulators 23-4 Reservoirs See, Air Systems; Hydraulic Systems Resistance 19-2 19-3 Resistance Brazing advantages 6-10 cables 6-8 "cool time" 6-6 definition 1-3 6-4 electrode assembly, example of 6-7 electrode, materials 6-7 electrodes, cooling of 6-6 6-8 electrodes, grades of carbon 6-7 equipment 6-6 equipment, portable 6-8 facing material 6-6 6-8 filler metal 6-6 6-9 6-10 fluxes, types of 6-8 fluxing 6-8 general description 6-4 heat generation 6-6 "heat time" 6-6 incandescent 1-3 joints, butt 6-9 joints, lap 6-9 Index Terms Links Resistance Brazing (Cont.) joints, scarfed butt 6-9 joints, solidified 6-9 joints, straight or square butt 6-9 joints, types of 6-9 machine 6-6 materials 6-6 pickling 6-8 procedure, defined 6-4 setup, typical 6-7 surface preparation 6-6 6-8 timing range 6-7 tongs 6-8 "weld time" 6-6 Resistance Cutting applications 6-16 cables, examples of 6-17 equipment 6-16 6-18 process, defined 6-16 Resistance Parting process, defined 1-3 6-16 Resistance Welder Manufacturers' Association (RWMA) See Also, Electrodes, materials control standards 20-5 Resistivity Probe 22-28 Robots anthropoid style 16-15 applications 16-15 16-16 electric 16-15 force systems 16-15 gantry style 16-16 general description 16-14 hydraulic 16-15 implementation, considerations 16-16 integration 16-14 pneumatic 16-12Index Terms Links Robots (Cont.) Robot Industries Association (RIA) 16-16 selection of 16-16 styles, defined 16-15 turret style 16-14 16-15 use of 16-12 Rocker Arm Welding Machine air operated 16-3 electrode force 16-3 electrode settings 16-3 foot operated 16-3 hopper applications 17-14 principles 16-3 Roll Spot Welding See Also, Low Carbon Steels; Seam Welding; Stainless Steels aluminum 11-30 11-31 applications 1-8 definition 1-2 quality control 24-31 S Safety devices 25-4 hazards 25-3 machine guarding 25-3 operator 25-5 personnel 25-3 procedures 22-2 Schedules (Welding) See, Aluminum; Copper; Flash Welding; High Carbon, Low Alloy Steels; Low Carbon Steels; Magnesium; Nickel; Seam Welding; Spot Welding Seam Welding See Also, Aluminum; Coated Steels; Copper; Electrodes; High Carbon , Index Terms Links Seam Welding (Cont.) Low Alloy Steels; Low Carbon Steels; Machines; Magnesium; Nickel; Stainless Steels; Titanium; Zinc aluminum 11-30 11-31 aluminum, electrode cleaning 11-31 aluminum, electrode cooling 11-31 angle joint 4-1 applications 1-15 1-16 4-2 4-4 applications, lap seam 4-8 butt seam 4-1 chrome plated steels 10-5 coated steels 10-4 "cool time" 4-6 cooling 4-9 4-10 copper 13-10 costs 1-10 current, continuous 4-4 current, interrupted 4-4 definition 1-2 4-1 design considerations 1-15 4-2 direct current 4-5 electrodes 18-25 equipment, selection of 1-10 fixtures 17-15 flange joint 4-1 foil butt 4-4 gaging fixture, 'Z' Bar 4-7 4-8 galvanized iron 10-5 general description 4-1 "heat time" 4-6 high carbon, low alloy steels 8-12 lap joint 4-1 lap seam 4-1 lap weld 4-1 lead plated steels 10-5 leak test 4-10Index Terms Links Seam Welding (Cont.) low carbon steels 7-12 7-13 machines 11-30 16-6 18-26 machines, circular type 4-1 machines, longitudinal type 4-1 macroetch test 24-29 magnesium, equipment 12-2 mash seam 4-2 materials 4-2 4-7 4-11 nickel 14-16 14-17 nickel, electrode suggestions 14-16 nickel plated steels 10-3 nickel, weld quality 14-16 nickel, weld tests 14-16 nickel, welding conditions 14-17 peel test 4-9 pillow test 4-9 plated steels 10-4 production factors 4-5 quality control 4-8 24-31 24-32 roll spot weld 4-7 spot tack welding 4-7 stainless steels 9-4 9-8 surface cleaning 4-8 tension-shear test 4-9 terne plated steels 10-2 10-4 terne plated steels, welding schedules 10-4 tests 4-9 4-10 tin plated steels 10-2 10-4 titanium 15-2 unweldable stock 4-7 warpage, prevention of 4-10 weld appearance 4-10 4-11 "weld interval" 4-6 weld quality 1-11 4-8 4-9 weld strength 4-9 weldable stock 4-7 Index Terms Links Seam Welding (Cont.) welding current 4-4 welding schedules 4-5 4-6 welding schedules, low carbon steel 7-16 7-17 welding speeds 4-5 4-6 welding variables 4-4 welds, continuous 4-4 welds, roll spot 4-1 welds, seam 4-1 4-3 welds, types of 4-1 4-2 wheel depressions 4-9 zinc plated steels 10-5 zinc, welding conditions 15-5 Seam Welding Machine applications 16-8 drive arrangements 16-7 electrode arrangements 16-7 general principles 16-6 materials welded 16-8 setup of 16-6 types of 16-6 18-26 Secondary Circuit See, Electrical System Secondary Coil 19-7 Secondary Current See, Current Secondary Windings See, Windings Series Welding advantages 17-8 applications 17-7 circuits 2-3 defined 2-3 2-4 general description 17-7 17-8 tooling 17-7 Service air installation 25-2 Index Terms Links Service (Cont.) hydraulic installation 25-3 removing equipment 25-13 water installation 25-3 Shunting See, Heat Generation Shuttle Devices applications 17-12 general description 17-11 17-12 Single-Phase See Also, Aluminum, welding schedules; Controls; Direct Energy; Equipment; Machines; Magnesium, welding schedules; Rectifier Systems; Transformers direct energy, current–force illus. 11-21 Slope Control See, Controls Spike Welding Machine defined 16-17 Spot Welding See Also, Aluminum; Coated Steels; Copper; Dissimilar Metals; Electrodes; High Carbon, Low Alloy Steels; Low Carbon Steels; Machines; Magnesium; Nickel; Stainless Steels; Titanium; Zinc aluminum 11-5 aluminum alloys 2024-T Alclad 11-5 aluminum, electrode cooling 11-29 aluminum, electrode maintenance 11-29 aluminum, peel test 11-26 aluminum, radiography test 11-26 aluminum, visual inspection test 11-26 aluminum, weld consistency 11-27 aluminized steel 10-3 bonderized steel 10-3 cadmium plated steel 10-4 Index Terms Links Spot Welding (Cont.) cartridge brass 13-9 chromium plated steel 10-3 coated steels 10-1 consistency test 24-31 contacting overlap 1-13 copper 13-5 copper alloys, physical properties 13-6 copper alloys, welding schedules 13-9 copper alloys, welding technique 13-7 copper, electrode configuration 13-7 copper silicon 13-10 costs 1-9 definition 1-2 2-1 design considerations 1-12 direct welds 2-3 dissimilar metals 15-5 dissimilar metals, electrode material 15-7 dissimilar metals, heat balance 15-7 dissimilar metals, welding schedules 15-8 downslope 2-6 edge distance 11-22 electrode force 2-8 electrode holders 18-20 electrode materials 18-8 electrode space 1-13 electrodes 18-12 electrodes, choice of 2-5 electrodes, effects of 2-7 equipment, costs 1-9 equipment, selection of 1-9 1-13 2-8 fatigue test 24-29 forging 8-8 galvanneal plated steel 10-2 general principles 2-1 grain refinement 8-8 hardness test 24-31Index Terms Links Spot Welding (Cont.) heat balance 2-2 high brass 13-8 high carbon and low alloy steels 8-3 high carbon and low alloy, welding cycle 8-9 8-10 indirect welds 2-4 internal discontinuities, causes of 2-8 impact test 24-29 implementation of 2-8 lead 15-5 low brass 13-9 low carbon steels 7-3 machines 16-11 machine setup, AISI 4130 8-5 machines, multiple spot 16-11 machines, press type 16-5 macroetch test 24-29 magnesium 12-1 magnesium, chrome-pickle coating 12-1 magnesium, dissimilar metals 12-3 magnesium, equipment 12-2 magnesium, physical properties 12-4 materials, dissimilar 2-5 materials, ferrous 2-5 materials, nonferrous 2-5 materials, selection of 1-18 2-5 materials, thickness considerations 2-5 microetch examination 24-31 Monel, welding conditions 14-17 muntz metal 13-8 nickel 14-6 nickel alloys, weld defects 14-12 nickel alloys, welding technique 14-8 nickel, electrode maintenance 14-8 nickel, electrode suggestions 14-6 nickel plated steel 10-3 Index Terms Links Spot Welding (Cont.) nickel, variables 14-6 nickel, weld defects 14-12 nickel, weld quality 14-8 14-11 nickel, weld size 14-11 nickel, weld tests 14-14 nickel, welding schedules 14-4 14-5 14-9 painted surfaces 10-4 parallel welds 2-3 parkerized steel 10-3 phosphor bronze 13-10 plated steels 10-1 preheating 8-8 principles, general 2-1 process, selection of 2-8 quality control 24-28 radiographic test 2-7 24-30 red brass 13-9 secondary circuit 2-2 series welds 2-3 2-4 sheet separation 2-8 sherardized steel 10-3 shunting effect 11-19 silicon brass 13-9 silicon bronze 13-10 similar metals 15-5 stages, defined 8-8 stainless steels 9-5 steel, AISI 4130 8-5 8-6 steel, AISI 4340 8-6 steels, AISI 1020, 1035, 1045 8-6 8-7 surface cleaning 2-7 surface condition 1-14 2-6 surface contaminants, effects of 2-6 tensile-shear strength 2-7 tension-shear test 2-7 24-27 24-28 terne plate 10-2 Index Terms Links Spot Welding (Cont.) tests, types of 2-7 throat depth, provision for 1-13 tin plate 10-2 titanium 15-1 titanium, electrode suggestions 15-2 titanium, welding conditions 15-2 15-3 twist test 24-29 24-30 upslope 2-6 weld cycle 2-5 weld, development 11-8 weld, structure 11-8 weld quality, determination of 2-7 weld quality, improvement of 1-11 weld strength 1-13 2-7 "weld time" 2-1 welding current 2-1 welding schedules 2-7 welding schedules, aluminum 11-24 welding schedules, low carbon steel 7-6 welds, types of 1-12 2-2 work surface, appearance of 2-7 work surface, evaluation of 2-7 workpiece, design considerations 1-12 workpiece, surface condition 2-6 workpiece, thickness 2-5 yellow brass 13-8 zinc plated steel 10-2 zinc, welding conditions 15-4 Spot Welding Machine controls 16-13 general description 1-9 16-11 moving part 16-12 multiple 16-11 portable 1-10 setup of 16-11 16-12 stationary 16-11 system configurations 16-12Index Terms Links Squeeze "squeeze time" 2-5 20-4 Stainless Steels applications 9-3 austenitic 9-1 9-3 carbide precipitation 9-3 carbide precipitation zones 9-4 clad steel, definition 9-9 clad steel, welding technique 9-8 9-11 classification 9-1 corrosion, intergranular 9-3 definition 9-1 ferritic 9-1 9-2 flash welding 9-8 general principles 9-1 intergranular corrosion 9-3 martensitic 9-1 9-2 martensitic, applications 9-3 mash seam welding 4-2 oxidation, resistance to 9-1 physical properties 9-4 pickling 9-5 projection welding 9-7 projection welding, welding schedules 9-10 properties, consideration of 9-4 roll spot welding 9-8 seam welding 9-4 9-8 seam welding, equipment 9-8 seam welding, heat distortion 9-8 seam welding, machines 9-8 seam welding, warping 9-8 seam welding, weld shrinkage 9-8 seam welding, weld structure 9-8 seam welding, welding schedules 9-11 spot welding 9-5 spot welding, electrodes 9-5 spot welding, heat distortion 9-6 Index Terms Links Stainless Steels (Cont.) spot welding, multiple-impulse 9-7 spot welding, spot spacing 9-5 spot welding, variables 9-5 spot welding, weld shrinkage 9-7 spot welding, weld structure 9-6 9-7 spot welding, "weld time" 9-5 spot welding, welding controls 9-6 spot welding, welding current 9-5 spot welding, welding force 9-5 spot welding, welding schedules 9-9 9-10 stabilized alloys 9-4 surface cleaning 9-5 types of, groups defined 9-1 variables 9-6 weld quality 9-6 weld structure 9-6 9-7 Statistical Process Control (S.P.C.) See, Quality Control Steels See Also, Coated Steels; High Carbon, Low Alloy Steels; Stainless Steels coated steels, types of 10-1 coated steels, welding technique 10-1 Stored Energy electrochemical welding machine 11-7 electromagnetic welding machine 11-7 electrostatic current–force diagram 11-21 electrostatic welding machine 11-7 homo-polar welding machine 11-7 welding machine, types defined 11-6 11-7 16-1 16-2 T Tables dial 17-11 dial, Geneva 17-11 dial table machine 17-11Index Terms Links Tables (Cont.) eight station 17-11 rotary index table 16-12 Tantalum See, Refractory Metals Tapers See, Electrodes Temper "temper time" 2-5 8-5 Temperature measurement of 22-13 sensing devices 22-14 Tensile-shear Strength See Also, Aluminum; High Carbon, Low Alloy Steels; Low Carbon; Nickel defined 24-5 (Note 2) Tensile Strength defined 24-5 (Note 2) Tension-shear See, Tests Tests See Also, Qualit y Control AWS standards 24-4 bend 24-15 cross-tension 24-7 24-8 drop-impact 24-9 eddy current 22-29 24-16 fatigue 24-11 flash welds 24-6 hardness 24-14 impact 24-8 leak 4-10 macroetch 14-15 24-11 pattern signals 22-26 22-27 peel 4-9 14-14 24-15Index Terms Links Tests (Cont.) pillow 4-9 4-10 24-12 projection welds 24-5 radiographic 2-7 14-14 22-29 24-12 roll spot welds 24-5 seam welds 24-5 shear-impact 24-8 shear-impact loading 24-10 24-11 spot welds 24-5 tension 24-7 tension-impact loading 24-11 tension-shear 14-14 24-6 tension-shear, fatigue 24-11 torsional 24-13 torsional-shear 24-13 24-14 torsional, straight-shear strength equation 24-14 twist 14-14 24-13 u-tension 24-7 24-8 water flow 25-8 water leaks 25-8 Thermocouple 22-13 Thermometer 22-13 Three-Phase See Also, Aluminum, welding schedules; Controls; Direct Energy; Equipment; Machines; Rectifier Systems; Transformers three-phase direct energy, current-force diagram 11-20 Time See Also, Cool; Flash Welding; Heat; Postheat; Preheat; Squeeze; Temper; Weld control of 22-4 defined 1-6 diagram, weld cycle 2-5 welding current time 22-2 Index Terms Links Timers absolute 20-2 electronic timers 20-3 20-4 nonsynchronous 20-2 20-3 synchronous 20-2 20-3 synchronous precision 20-2 transistorized 20-3 Timing motor timing 20-3 pneumatic timing 20-3 Tin See, Copper Tips See, Electrodes Titanium alloys 15-1 15-3 flash welding 15-2 general description 15-1 physical properties 15-1 seam welding 15-2 spot welding 15-1 spot welding, electrode suggestions 15-2 spot welding, welding conditions 15-2 surface preparation 15-1 welding technique 15-1 Tooling configurations 16-12 general description 17-2 indirect welding 17-8 location type 17-2 maintenance 25-6 25-7 materials, types & use of 17-3 multiple welding 17-9 parallel welding 17-9 perishable 17-2 quick change 16-12 series welding 17-7 Index Terms Links Torsional-shear See, Tests Transducers 22-20 22-21 Transfer Lines transfers, mechanical 16-12 16-13 Transformers center tap 19-13 19-14 configuration 19-5 19-6 defined 19-2 design 19-6 diodes 19-13 excitation current test 25-8 fixture type 17-9 19-5 19-8 frequency converter type 19-3 19-9 19-10 general principles 19-4 high frequency type 19-11 Hipersil 19-6 20-10 Hipot test 25-7 kVA demand 19-8 kVA rating 19-7 19-8 machine type 19-7 19-14 main 19-14 maintenance 25-7 25-8 multiple spot 19-5 19-7 19-8 nonrectified 19-14 package type 17-9 portable gun 19-6 power supply transformer, rating of 21-14 power transformer, selection of
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