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![كتاب Verified Signal Processing Algorithms in Matlab and C Empty](https://2img.net/i/fa/empty.gif) | موضوع: كتاب Verified Signal Processing Algorithms in Matlab and C السبت 23 أبريل 2022, 4:28 am | |
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أخواني في الله أحضرت لكم كتاب Verified Signal Processing Algorithms in Matlab and C Arie Dickman Advised by Israel Greiss
![كتاب Verified Signal Processing Algorithms in Matlab and C V_s_p_10](https://i.servimg.com/u/f61/15/36/74/14/v_s_p_10.jpg) و المحتوى كما يلي :
1 Overview of Signal Detection . 1 1.1 Introduction . 1 1.2 About Signal Detection 1 1.3 Conclusions . 8 2 Measures for Verification and Implementation of Algorithms 9 2.1 Introduction . 9 2.2 Measures Details . 9 2.2.1 Algorithm Verification in Frequency 9 2.2.2 Preparing Coefficients File for C Software . 11 2.2.3 Algorithm Verification in Time 12 2.2.4 Algorithm Transient Time Measurement . 14 2.2.5 Algorithm Processing Time Measurement . 15 2.3 Conclusions . 15 3 Narrow Band & Wide Band Processing Basics 17 3.1 Narrow Band Processing . 18 3.1.1 Introduction . 18 3.1.2 Numerically Controlled Oscillator 18 3.1.3 Finite Impulse Response Decimators 21 3.1.4 Low Decimation Ratio Finite Impulse Response Filters 22 3.1.5 Higher Decimation Ratio Finite Impulse Response Filters 29 3.1.6 Conclusions . 36 3.2 Wide Band Processing . 37 3.2.1 Introduction . 37 3.2.2 Shaping Windows 37 3.2.3 Designing Self Made Windows 44 3.2.4 Fast Fourier Transform . 46 Contentsxii 3.2.5 Fast Fourier Transform Implementation . 46 3.2.6 Implementing Large Fast Fourier Transform by Smaller Ones . 54 3.2.7 Conclusions . 57 References . 58 4 Complex Finite Impulse Response Filters 59 4.1 Introduction . 59 4.2 Complex Finite Impulse Response Filter Design 59 4.2.1 Modified Low Pass Filter Design Method 60 4.2.2 Matlab Direct Complex Filter Design Method 61 4.2.3 Preferred Design Method . 62 4.2.4 Property of Complex Filters . 62 4.2.5 Implementation of Complex Filters . 63 4.3 Conclusions . 63 5 Infinite Impulse Response Filters . 65 5.1 Introduction . 65 5.2 Infinite Impulse Response Filter Design . 65 5.2.1 Low Pass Filter Design 67 5.2.2 High Pass Filter Design 75 5.2.3 Band Stop Filter Design 78 5.2.4 All Pass Filter Design . 81 5.2.5 Band Pass Filter Design 83 5.3 Conclusions . 87 6 Non-Linear and Batch Filters 89 6.1 Introduction . 89 6.2 Median Filter 89 6.3 Batch Filter with Comparison to Median Filter 92 6.4 Conclusions . 93 7 Interpolators 95 7.1 Introduction . 95 7.2 Interpolator Design . 95 7.2.1 Fractional Interpolation/Decimation 98 7.3 Conclusions . 106 8 Direct Digital Synthesis . 107 8.1 Introduction . 107 8.2 Direct Digital Synthesizer Details 107 8.2.1 Frequency Modulation of a Direct Digital Synthesizer 109 8.2.2 Receiver—Frequency Demodulator for Verification 111 8.2.3 Amplitude Modulation of a Direct Digital Synthesizer 113 8.2.4 Receiver—Amplitude Demodulator for Verification 115 8.3 Conclusions . 117 Contentsxiii 9 Inverse Fast Fourier Transform . 119 9.1 Introduction . 119 9.2 Inverse Fast Fourier Transform Details 119 9.3 Inverse Fast Fourier Transform Implementation . 121 9.4 Frequency Modulation of Inverse Fast Fourier Transform Output . 122 9.5 Conclusions . 124 Reference . 124 10 Hilbert Transform 125 11 Channelizer . 127 11.1 Introduction 127 11.2 Channelizer Fundamentals . 127 11.2.1 Comparing Channelizer and Narrow Band Processing Times 129 11.2.2 Channelizer Design Considerations 130 11.3 Conclusions 134 12 Correlation 135 12.1 Introduction 135 12.2 Correlation Details . 135 12.2.1 Fast Correlation by Using Fast Fourier Transform 138 12.3 Pattern Recognition 140 12.4 Conclusions 144 13 Adaptive Filters 145 13.1 Introduction 145 13.2 Equalizers 145 13.2.1 Least Mean Squares Algorithm . 146 13.2.2 Normalized Least Mean Squares Algorithm . 150 13.2.3 Multi-input Equalizer . 151 13.3 Interference Cancellation 154 13.3.1 Least Mean Squares Cancelling Algorithm 156 13.3.2 Recursive Least Squares Cancelling Algorithm . 157 13.4 Conclusions 158 Reference . 159 14 Unequally Spaced Sampling 161 14.1 Introduction 161 14.2 Modified Lomb–Scargle Algorithm 161 14.3 Algorithm Performance . 165 14.4 Algorithm Quality Factor 166 14.5 Algorithm Sensitivity to Interference 167 14.6 Algorithm Implementation in C . 169 14.7 Conclusions 171 References . 171 Contentsxiv 15 Encountered Problems in Signal Processing & Solutions 173 15.1 Introduction 173 15.2 When Input Signal Includes Spikes 173 15.3 When Input Signal Includes Fast Transitions 178 15.4 Algorithms Processing Time Improvement 179 15.5 Mean Center Frequency Estimation of Signals . 184 15.5.1 Mean Center Frequency Estimation for Multiple Signals 184 15.5.2 Mean Center Frequency Estimation for a Single Channel . 186 15.6 Power Level Estimation . 189 15.7 Noise Floor Estimation . 191 15.8 Bandwidth Estimation 195 15.9 Automatic Level Control 200 15.10 Frequency Response Estimation 203 15.11 Group Delay Estimation 207 15.12 Conclusions 209 Related Software . 211 Index . 213 Contents A A2d, 2, 9, 17, 18, 20, 22, 29, 37, 189, 200 Adaptive, 145, 159 Adaptive filters, 145–159 Algorithms, 9, 12–15, 46, 57, 58, 99, 102, 104, 105, 119–121, 127, 131, 145–151, 154, 156–159, 161–171, 179, 180, 182, 186, 187, 191, 194, 198, 200, 202, 203, 205–207, 209 Alias, 18, 19, 102 All pass, 81–83 AM, 108, 115, 116, 190, 197 Amplitude, 107, 113–117, 120, 121, 129, 153, 167, 175, 176, 203, 204 Analog, 17 Antipodal, 137 Ap, 22, 23, 29, 33, 45, 59, 60, 68, 84, 85, 97, 99, 100, 103, 112, 116 Arrays, 12, 13, 21, 37, 46, 47, 51, 52, 63, 91, 95, 99, 108, 120, 135–140, 169, 206 Ast, 22, 29, 99 Attenuation, 22, 26, 34, 71, 93, 101, 103, 157, 158 Automatic level control (ALC), 189, 200–203, 209 Autoscaling, 46, 121 Average, 3, 90, 200 B Band, 2, 5, 17–58, 78, 83, 85, 89, 186, 195, 198 Band pass, 83–87 Band stop, 78–81 Bandwidth, 1, 2, 9, 17, 22, 29, 38, 42, 79, 128, 131, 134, 191, 195–200, 209 Baseband, 17, 18 Batch filters, 89–93 Benchmark, 37, 63 Bin, 2, 3, 5, 18, 120, 121, 124, 130, 131, 184, 189, 194 Binary, 12, 13 Biquads, 68, 76, 79, 85 Bit, 20, 46, 47, 121 Bit reversed order, 47, 49 Bro, 47 Butterflies, 46, 121 Butterworth, 65 C Cancellation, 145 Cascade, 31, 33, 34 Cascaded integrator comb (CIC), 21, 22, 29–33, 36, 89 Center, 144 Center frequency, 184–188, 209 cfirpm, 61, 62 Channelizer, 127–134 Channels, 2, 15, 17, 18, 36–38, 42–44, 57, 127, 129–134, 145, 146, 148, 151, 154, 158, 186–188 Chebwin, 39, 42–45, 130, 131 Clip, 175 Clocks_per_sec, 15 Clock_t, 15 Index214 Codes, 2, 3, 5, 14, 15, 18, 20–22, 30, 34, 35, 37, 38, 40, 43, 44, 47, 51, 52, 54–56, 59–61, 67, 69, 70, 73, 75–80, 83, 86, 87, 89–91, 98, 99, 102–104, 106–111, 113–115, 121–123, 125–127, 129, 131, 132, 135, 137, 139, 140, 142, 144, 147, 150, 154, 156–158, 162, 163, 169–171, 175–177, 180, 182, 184, 187–189, 191, 192, 194, 196, 198, 200, 202–209 Coefficients, 11–12, 20, 22, 24, 26, 27, 29, 32, 33, 35–37, 39, 40, 43–45, 60–63, 66, 68–70, 73, 74, 76, 77, 79–81, 85–87, 97, 99, 101–103, 108, 134, 147, 148, 156 Coefficients file, 11–12, 20, 27, 35, 36, 60, 62, 63, 66, 69, 71, 73, 76, 99 Coherent, 5–8 Compensator, 29, 34–36, 67 Complex, 5, 18, 20, 21, 37, 46, 47, 51, 52, 58–63, 99, 119, 120, 125–128, 137, 139, 203, 205, 209 Conj, 63, 121, 139, 205, 209 Conjugate, 62 Constraint, 21 Convergence, 146, 147, 153, 156, 158 Convolution, 33 Correlations, 135–144 Cos, 20 CPU, 9, 15, 26, 29, 32, 33, 35–37, 40, 43, 44, 51, 54, 67, 73, 76, 80, 83, 86, 91, 98, 102, 104, 106, 129, 130, 134, 138–140, 144, 148, 151, 171, 177, 180, 184, 188, 194, 203, 207 Cramer - Rao bound, 5 D db, 1, 2, 4, 6, 22, 27, 29, 30, 34, 35, 39, 42, 43, 57, 65, 81, 92, 105, 106, 115, 130, 131, 146, 153, 155, 156, 166, 174, 175, 182, 191, 192, 194, 196, 199, 200 Dbm, 1, 179, 182, 184, 189, 191–194, 196, 202 Decimal, 179, 196 Decimation, 9, 18, 21–23, 29–31, 33, 36, 43, 44, 77, 81, 87, 95, 98–106 Decimation in frequency, 47, 51 Decimators, 18, 21–22, 29–34, 36, 130, 131 Delay, 73, 74, 79, 89, 90, 92, 93, 135, 140, 144 Demodulate, 107, 117, 128 Demodulation, 157, 203 Demodulator, 63, 111–113, 115–117, 187, 203 Designs, 18, 21–24, 29–36, 44, 57, 59–63, 65–87, 95–107, 117, 130–134 Detections, 1–8, 140, 191 Difference equations, 65, 81 Digital, 17, 18, 37, 107–117, 127 Digital direct synthesizer (DDS), 107–109, 111, 113, 115, 117 Digital down converter (DDC), 2 Digitally controlled attenuator (DCA), 200 Digit reversed order, 51 Direct form, 65, 67, 81 Distort, 90, 176, 200 Doppler, 144 Doubles, 22, 63, 92, 137, 171 Dro, 52, 54 Droop, 22, 29 DSP, vii Dynamic, 17, 46, 121, 173, 176, 200 E Ellip, 68, 76, 79, 85 ENOB, 17 Equalizers, 145–154, 158 Estimation, 5, 146, 153, 158, 162, 165–167, 184–200, 203–209 Exponent, 46, 120, 205, 209 F False alarms, 1, 3, 8 False detections, 2 Fast Fourier transform (FFT), 2, 5, 18, 37, 38, 41, 44, 46–58, 96, 119–121, 124–126, 129–132, 144, 161, 162, 171, 173, 184, 186, 191, 195, 200 fdesign, 22, 44, 59, 60, 67 fftshift, 51 Figure of merit, 137 Files, 12, 13 Filters, 17, 21–37, 44, 59–63, 65–87, 89–93, 95–97, 99–105, 126, 145, 156, 157, 186, 196, 203, 204, 207 Filtfilt, 92 Finite impulse response (FIR), 22, 24, 27, 29, 32–36, 44, 45, 59, 63, 67–69, 73–81, 83, 85–87, 89, 92, 99, 134, 146, 148, 156, 157 Firls, 22 Firpm, 22 Fixed point, 26, 27, 31, 36, 39, 40, 42–44, 66, 67, 70, 73, 75–77, 79, 82, 86 Flattopwin, 44, 130–132 Float, 12, 39, 169 Index215 Floating point, 24, 26, 27, 29, 40, 43, 44, 46, 67, 69, 73, 76, 79, 80, 86, 98, 102, 104, 106, 121, 182 Floor, 20, 100, 173, 174, 191–195 Fp, 21–23, 29, 30, 33, 34, 45, 60, 68, 75, 92, 97, 99–103, 112, 116 FPGA, 134, 179 Fractional, 95, 98–106 Frames, 5–7 Frequencies, 2, 9, 17–24, 29, 46, 60, 65, 73, 74, 78, 79, 83, 89, 90, 92, 95–99, 103, 105–109, 111–113, 117, 120, 122–130, 134, 135, 144, 161, 162, 165–167, 169, 171, 184–187, 189, 191, 195, 203, 207 Frequency modulation (FM), 108–112, 122, 124, 127–129, 154, 184, 186, 187, 190 Frequency response, 11, 23, 24, 27, 30, 34, 38, 39, 41, 42, 44, 45, 60–62, 69, 76, 79, 82, 85, 86, 96, 98, 111, 115, 124, 134, 203–207, 209 Fs, 2, 6, 17, 19–21, 41, 59–61, 63, 68, 72, 74, 78, 81, 84, 85, 92, 95–100, 103, 105–110, 113, 114, 116, 120, 122, 123, 125, 127–130, 133, 155, 156, 163, 164, 174, 179, 184, 185, 187–189, 192, 197, 200, 201, 204, 208 Fstop, 22, 23, 30, 34 G Gain, 2, 22, 27, 67, 81, 82 Geometric, 32 Group delay, 73–75, 77, 80–81, 87, 207–209 H H file, 11, 20, 29, 39, 40, 47, 49, 52, 66, 69–71, 76, 79, 86, 108, 169, 180 High pass, 75–77 Higher decimation, 29–36 Hilbert transform, 125–126 HPF, 77 I IF, 1, 9, 17, 18, 22, 29, 127, 191, 195, 196, 204 imag, 21, 47, 51, 63, 137, 169 Images, 18, 19, 21, 96 Implements, 20, 37, 63, 66, 69, 76, 79, 86, 95, 103, 104, 106–109, 113, 117, 119, 121, 124, 127, 131, 138, 144, 159, 170, 179, 187, 203, 207 Include, 61, 62, 67, 75, 78, 83, 96, 144, 162, 173–180, 187, 196 Increment, 21, 108 Infinite impulse response (IIR), 65–87, 89, 140, 148 In-place, 51 Input, 1, 12, 21, 24, 27, 29–32, 35–37, 43, 44, 46, 47, 63, 65, 73, 89, 91, 92, 95, 97–99, 101, 102, 120, 126, 127, 130, 145, 148, 151, 153, 161, 162, 173–179, 189, 200, 202, 206, 207, 209 int, 29, 71, 75, 77, 169, 202 Integration, 35 Interference, 145, 154, 156–158, 167–169 Interference cancellation, 145, 154–158 Interleave, 139, 169, 202 Interp1, 104–106 Interpolation, 95, 96, 98–106 Interpolator, 95–106 Inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT), 119, 120 Inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT), 119–126 Iteration, 148, 151 J Jitter, 17 L Lag, 67 Latency, 13 Leads, 36, 67 Least mean square (LMS), 146, 147, 149–151, 156–159 Linear, 65, 74, 89, 104, 106 Lomb–Scargle, 161–165 Loop, 26, 40, 67, 78, 79 Low decimation, 22–29, 32 Low pass, 44, 60–62, 67–75 Low pass filter (LPF), 18, 21, 60, 76, 95, 98, 126, 184 LSB, 63 M Main, 163 Margins, 67, 79 Mean, 22, 74, 137, 146–150, 156–157, 175, 184–188 Mean square error, 145, 146, 153 Measures, 9–15, 23, 166, 175, 195, 196, 198 Median, 89–93 Index216 Memory, 9, 15, 179 Modulation, 108, 109, 111, 113–115, 122–124, 184 Multi input equalizer, 153, 154 Multi path, 154 Multiple, 31, 99, 101, 103, 127, 184–186, 189, 190 Multirate, 21, 22, 29 N Narrow, 78, 83 Narrow band, 2, 17–58, 127, 129–130, 134 Noise, 1–4, 6, 8, 67, 89, 92, 93, 108, 137, 154, 157, 191, 195 Noise, 1–4, 7, 20, 67, 89, 92, 93, 108, 137, 154, 155, 157, 164, 173–174, 191–197, 199, 209 Noise floor, 20, 173, 174, 191–196, 198, 209 Non coherent, 5–7 Non linear, 89–93 Normal distribution, 2 Normalization, 153, 189 Normalized, 65, 150 Normalized Least Mean Squares (NLMS), 150–151, 153, 158 Notch, 78–81 Numerically controlled oscillator (NCO), 18–22, 107, 126, 130, 131, 184, 186, 205, 209 Nyquist, 9, 17, 21, 101 O Offline, 93, 163, 169 Online, 163, 170 Optimal, 35 Order, 1, 2, 5, 18, 22, 29, 31–33, 36, 37, 40–42, 44, 47, 51–52, 65–68, 73, 76, 77, 79, 80, 85, 86, 90, 92, 101, 111, 115, 130, 134, 146–148, 150, 151, 153, 158, 162, 178, 184, 187, 190, 191, 195 Output, 13, 14, 17, 20, 21, 26, 29, 30, 32, 36, 37, 40, 46, 47, 51, 63, 65, 71, 73, 74, 92, 95, 99, 102, 105, 107, 108, 110–112, 114–116, 120–124, 126, 136, 139, 151, 189, 202, 204 P Parabolic approximation, 192 Parseval, 189 Passband, 18, 21, 22, 29, 33–35, 44, 59–62, 65, 130, 195 Pattern recognition, 135, 140–144 Peaks, 121, 144, 192, 200 Peak to average, 121 Periodogram, 161, 162, 166, 171 Phase, 21, 47, 51, 67, 74, 79, 81, 82, 108, 121, 125, 129, 184, 186, 203, 204 Plomb, 161, 165, 166, 171 Polyphase, 99–104 Power, 1–3, 5, 6, 47, 51, 96, 137, 178, 179, 182, 184–186, 189–192, 194, 196, 198, 200, 202, 203, 209 Probability, 1–3, 5, 8 Processing, 2, 5–8, 17–58, 127, 130, 131, 134, 138, 173–209 Processing time, 5, 9, 15, 21, 22, 26, 27, 29, 32, 36, 37, 40, 43, 44, 51, 54–56, 63, 67, 73, 74, 76, 77, 80, 81, 83, 86, 87, 91, 98, 102, 104, 106, 110, 114, 121, 123, 126, 127, 129–131, 134, 135, 137–140, 144, 148, 151, 158, 159, 171, 177, 179–184, 188, 194, 203, 207, 209 Q Quality factor, 166–167 Quantization, 2, 66, 67, 73, 74, 77, 80, 81, 86, 87 R Radix, 46–49, 51, 120, 121 Radix 2, 46–51, 54, 57, 120, 121 Radix 4, 46, 51–54, 57, 120, 121 Range, 2, 17, 23, 27, 46, 51, 81, 121, 173, 176, 184, 186, 187, 191, 200 Real, 21, 37, 46, 47, 51, 58–60, 63, 99, 107, 120, 125, 126, 134, 137, 145, 156, 157, 169, 182, 189 Receivers, 1, 2, 9, 17, 22, 29, 111–113, 115–117, 184, 189, 191, 195, 200, 204 Recursive, 157–158 Recursive Least Squares (RLS), 157–158 References, 135, 137, 138, 140, 144, 203 Rejection, 27, 29, 37–39, 42, 44, 57, 79, 92, 93, 130, 131, 134 Remez, 22 Resamples, 95, 98, 99, 102, 105, 106 Resolution, 15, 20, 23, 46, 108, 121, 161, 179, 184, 192 Resonances, 78, 79 Resources, 9, 15, 58, 77, 131, 134, 169 Responses, 9, 14, 21–37, 44, 59–63, 67, 68, 76, 79, 81, 85, 92, 96, 97, 101, 103, 112, 116, 119, 120, 126, 129, 130, 133, Index217 142, 145, 146, 148, 151, 153, 154, 156, 157, 185, 202–204, 207, 208 RF, 1, 2, 17, 187 Ripple, 22, 34, 35, 65, 101, 103 Round, 21, 40, 43, 66, 70, 73, 76, 77, 79, 80, 82, 86, 108 Rules of thumb, 23 S Samples, 5, 14, 17, 18, 21, 22, 26, 29, 35–37, 40, 43, 44, 67, 73, 74, 76, 80, 83, 86, 89–92, 95, 96, 98, 102, 104–106, 108, 110, 114, 120, 123, 130, 131, 134–142, 144, 161, 162, 171, 174–177, 188, 202, 203, 207 Sampling, 2, 17, 20–22, 26, 29, 32, 36, 38, 41, 65, 95, 96, 98, 99, 102, 106, 108, 127–131, 134, 161–171, 173, 184, 187 Second order section (SOS), 67–69, 76, 79, 85, 86 Sections, 2, 3, 5, 9, 11, 14, 15, 67–69, 71, 73, 76, 77, 79, 80, 85, 86, 202 Self made windows, 44–46, 57 Sensitive, 17, 77 Sequence, 32, 46, 47, 66, 120, 146 Shape factor, 22, 29 Shaping windows, 2, 18, 37–44, 57, 130, 131, 190 Shift, 18, 60, 71, 76, 79, 86, 126, 140, 141, 144 Short, 20–22, 108, 140, 161, 187 Signal to noise ratio (SNR), 1–6, 8, 17, 106, 157, 165–167, 191, 194, 195, 198 Signals, 1–8, 17, 22, 37, 46, 89, 90, 96, 97, 99, 101, 102, 109, 113, 119, 125, 126, 128, 135, 144, 156, 157, 162, 163, 173–209 Sin, 20, 107, 109, 113, 122 Sine, 9, 12, 37, 107, 126 Snapshot, 5 Software, vii, 11–13, 21, 36, 63, 108, 131, 134, 179 Specifications, 9, 15, 44, 67, 70, 73–81, 83, 86, 87 Spectral, 2, 37, 57, 130, 178 Spectrum, 20, 46, 96, 97, 99, 110, 114, 119, 123, 146, 191–193, 195, 196, 198, 200 Spikes, 89, 173–177, 209 Spurs, 17, 20, 108 Stability, 67 Stages, 9, 21, 29–31, 33, 36 State, 32, 69, 76, 79, 148, 153 std, 111, 115, 121, 166, 167, 169 Step, 3, 14, 26, 40, 47, 129, 146 Stopband, 18, 22, 26, 27, 29, 101, 103 Streams, 17, 18, 127, 128, 186 Sweeps, 9 Switch, 71, 76, 79, 86 Synthesizer, 107–117 T Target, 12, 15, 37, 63 Thermal noise, 1, 2 Thresholds, 2–5, 8, 140, 176, 197 tic, 55, 56, 158 Times, 3, 5, 9, 14–15, 18, 22, 26, 36, 37, 44, 47, 55, 56, 63, 67, 74, 77, 78, 81, 87, 89, 92, 95, 98, 102, 106, 112, 116, 119–121, 125–127, 129–131, 134, 140–142, 144–146, 153, 158, 161, 162, 169, 175, 179, 184, 189, 200, 202 toc, 55, 56, 158 Toolbox, 22 Transfer function, 65 Transient, 9, 14–15, 89, 92, 112, 116, 140 Transitions, 178–179, 209 Trial and error, 23, 33 Twiddle factors, 46–49, 52, 120 U Uncertainty, 79 Unequal, 161 Unequally spaced, 161–171 Uniform distribution, 3, 4 Unwrap, 205–207, 209 USB, 63 V Variables, 9, 32, 69, 76, 79, 144, 145, 169, 200 Variance, 147, 150 Verification, 9–15, 22–24, 33, 107, 111–113, 115–117 W Wave, 9, 12, 37, 107 Wide, 2, 5, 17–58, 146, 186, 195, 198 Windows, 37–45, 129–132, 162, 173, 178, 184, 185, 190 WOLA, 40–44, 129–132, 134, 173, 178, 184, 185, 191, 195, 200 Z Zero order hold (ZOH), 96 Zone, 9, 17, 89, 130, 195–197 Z transform, 22, 29, 32 Index 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